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PROGRESS 


RELIGIOUS     IDEAS. 


\ 


T II  y. 


PROG  11  ESS 


RELIGIOUS    IDEAS, 


L.    MARIA     CHILD. 


God  sends  Ijis  tcacliers  unto  every  age, 

To  every  clime,  and  every  race  of  men, 

With  revelations  fitted  to  their  Growth 

And  shape  of  mind,  nor  gives  the  realm  of  Tuutu 

Into  the  seltisli  rule  of  one  sole  race : 

Therefore,  each  form  of  worship  that  hath  swayed 

Tlie  life  of  man,  and  given  it  to  grasp 

Tlie  master-key  of  knowledge,  Ehverkxok, 

Enfolds  some  germs  of  goodness  and  of  right. 

J.  E.  Lowell. 


IN     THREE     VOLUMES. 
VOL.    I. 

FOURTH     EDITION. 

NEW  YORK : 

JAMES  MILLER,  PUBLISHER, 

779  BROADWAY. 


Entered  sicorrilnf;  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1855,  hy 

C.  S.  Francis  ano  Company, 

m  tne  Olerks  Office  of  the  District  Lv,nrt  ol  tlie  United  States  for  tlie  Southea 
District  of  New  York. 


-J" 


CONTENTS    OF    VOL.    I. 


PAGt 

Preface vii 


HINDOSTAN 1 

Antiqiiity  of  Hiiulostan,  2.  Ancliorites,  from  4  to  10.  Pantheism,  10. 
Gods  and  Goddesses,  from  10  to  18.  Sacred  Emblems,  16,  94.  Bramins, 
20  to  24;  47,  120,  132,  133.  Castes,  19,  34,  89,  117.  Transmigration, 
24  to  26  ;  114.  Heavens  and  Hells,  26  to  30.  Sacred  Books,  31  to  76. 
Crishna,  52 ;  60  to  74.  Bouddha,  83  to  87.  Sects,  57  to  93.  Temples, 
93  to  104.  Holy  Cities,  105  to  108.  Festivals,  108,  126.  Hindoo  "Wo- 
men, 109  to  113.  Sacred  Animals,  114  to  116.  Degeneracy  of  Hindoos, 
117.  Fakeers,  118.  Magic,  122.  Nadac  Shah,  91.  Narayua  Powar, 
127.     Rammohun  Roy,  136. 

EGYPT 139 

Ethiopians,  139.  Resemblances  between  Hindoos  and  Egyptians,  141  to 
144;  183,  191.  Ancient  travellers  to  Egypt,  145.  Antiquity  of  Eg\  pt, 
146,  148,  188.  Hieroglyphics  deciphered,  147.  Gods  and  Goddesses, 
149  to  157  ;  145.  Heavens  and  Hells,  158  to  161.  Castes,  161,  195. 
Priesthood,  163  to  16S.  Eg}-ptian  Women,  168,  195.  Oracles,  141,  168. 
Transmigration,  158,  160.  Festivals,  169  to  172.  Sacred  Books,  173  to 
li  176.  Pantheism,  175,  195.  Sacred  Animals,  176  to  180.  Sects,  180. 
cv^     Temples,  182  to  194 ;  196.     Pyramids,  140,  142,  188.     Alexandria,  196. 

CHINA 199 


Antiquityof  China,  199.    Confucius,  200  to  205.     Lao-tseu,  213.    Sacred 
Books,'  205  to  214  ;  221.     Religion  of  Fo,  the  Chinese  name  for  Boud- 


O     dha,  215,  217.     Lamaisni,  216.     Transmigration,  219. 


4646S8 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

PAOT. 

THIBET  AND  TARTARY 22i 

Famous  Buddhist  Hermit,  221.  Lamaism,  223.  Lamas,  224,  231  to  238. 
Grand  Lama,  223,  240,  24L  Sacred  Books,  222,  248.  Lamaseries,  or 
Monasteries,  224,  226  to  242.  Anchorites,  228.  Caste  abolished,  225. 
Prayer-wheels,  23G.  Temples,  242  to  244.  Buddhist  Worship,  244. 
Pantheism,  246.  Transmigration,  247.  Heavens  and  Hells,  230,  247. 
Sects,  249.     Date  of  Buddhist  Religion,  250.     Its  rapid  extension,  25  L 

CHALDEA 252 

Antiquity  of  Chaldea,  252.  Resemblanees  between  Chaldea,  Hindostan, 
and  Egypt,  253.  Priesthood,  254.  Magic,  254.  Gods  and  Goddesses, 
255.     Temple,  255. 

PERSIA  2oG 

Zoroaster,  256  to  259.  The  Sacred  Book  called  Zend-Avesta,  258  to  269. 
Gods  and  Spirits,  259  to  26L  The  Magi,  269  to  273.  Sects,  273.  Fire- 
worshippers,  275  to  279.     Devil-worsliippers,  279  to  283. 

GREECE  AND  ROME 284 

Hesiod,  286.  .Homer,  287.  Gods  and  Goddesses,  289  to  295.  Heaven 
and  Hell,  296.  Priesthood,  298  to  301  ;  306.  Women,  300.  Modes 
of  Worship,  301  to  314.  Festivals,  308  to  314.  Oracles  and  Prophecj-, 
314  to  322.  Temples,  323  to  330.  Sects  of  Philosophy,  330,  367. 
Orpheus,  333.  Pythagoras,  335  to  342.  Socrates,  344  to  352.  Plato, 
352  to  363.  Resemblances  between  Hindoo,  Egyptian,  and  Grecian 
Ideas,  289  to  291 ;  363.  Aristotle,  364.  Cicero,  365.  Stoics,  367. 
Decline  of  Faith,  370. 

CELTIC  TRIBES 3V3 

Druids,  374  to  380.     Women,  377. 

JEWS 381 

Abraham,  381  to  387.  Patriarchs,  387  to  390.  Moses,  391  to  395. 
Manetho,  393.  Resemblances  between  Eg3'ptian  and  Hebrew  Ideas, 
396  to  401.  The  Laws  and  Writings  of  Moses,  402  to  411.  Joshua,  411. 
Gideon,  415.  Frequent  Appearance  of  Angels,  384,  387,  416.  Priest- 
hood, 405,  421.  Idolatry,  414  to  418  ;  439  to  449.  Times  of  the  Judges, 
414  to  422.  Samuel,  421  to  425.  David,  425  to  431.  The  Temple, 
427,  431  to  438;  449.  Solomon,  431  to  440.  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judali,  440.  Book  of  the  Law,  447.  The  Kings  after  Solomon,  440  to 
449.     Exile  to  Babylon,  449. 


PREFACE. 


I  woci.D  candidly  advise  persons  who  are  conscious  of  bigoted  attach- 
ment to  any  creed,  or  theory,  not  to  purchase  this  book.  Whether 
they  are  bigoted  Christians,  or  bigoted  infidels,  its  tone  will  be  likely 
to  displease  them. 

My  motive  in  writing  has  been  a  very  simple  one.  I  wished  to 
show  that  theology  is  not  religion  ;  with  the  hope  that  I  might  help  to 
breakdown  partition  walls  ;  to  ameliorate  what  the  eloquent  Bush- 
nell  calls  "  baptized  hatreds  of  tlie  human  race."  In  order  to  do  this, 
I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  concise  and  comprehensive  account  of 
religions,  in  the  liberal  spirit  of  the  motto  on  my  title  page.  The  pe- 
riod embraced  in  my  plan  extends  from  the  most  ancient  Hindoo  re- 
cords, to  the  complete  establishment  of  the  Catholic  church. 

While  my  mind  was  yet  in  its  youth,  I  was  offended  by  the  manner 
in  which  Christian  writers  usually  describe  other  religions  ;  for  I  ob- 
served that  they  habitually  covered  apparent  contradictions  and  absurd- 
ities, in  Jewish  or  Christian  writings,  with  a  veil  of  allegories  and 
mystical  interpretation,  while  the  records  of  all  other  religions  were 
unscrupulously  analyzed,  or  contemptuously  described  as  "  childish 
fables,"  or  "  filthy  superstitions."  I  was  well  aware  that  this  was 
done  unconsciously,  under  the  influence  of  habitual  reverence  for 
early  teaching  ;  and  I  was  still  more  displeased  with  the  scoffing  tone 
of  sceptical  writers,  who  regarded  all  religious  as  founded  on  impos- 
ture. Eithei  way,  the  one-sidedness  of  the  representation  troubled 
my  strong  sense  of  justice.  I  recollect  wishing,  long  ago,  that  I  could 
become  acquainted  with  some  good,  intelligent  Bramin.  or  JNIoham- 
medan,  that  I  might  learn,  in  some  degree,  how  their  religions  ap- 
peared to  them.  This  feeling  expanded  within  me,  until  it  took  form 
in  this  book.  The  facts  it  contains  are  very  old  ;  the  novelty  it  claims 
is  the  point  of  view  from  which  those  facts  are  seen  and  presented.     I 


Vili  riiEFACE. 

have  treated  all  religions  with  reverence,  and  shown  no  more  favour 
to  one  than  to  another.  I  have  exhibited  each  one  in  the  liglit  of  its 
own  Sacred  Books  ;  and  in  giving  quotations,  I  have  aimed  in  every 
case  to  present  impartially  the  beauties  and  the  blemishes.  I  have 
honestly  tried  never  to  exaggerate  merits,  or  conceal  defects.  I  have 
not  declared  that  any  system  was  true,  or  that  any  one  was  false.  I 
have  even  avoided  the  use  of  the  word  heathen  ;  for  though  harmless 
in  its  original  signification,  it  is  used  in  a  way  that  implies  conde- 
scension, or  contempt ;  and  such  a  tone  is  inconsistent  with  the  per- 
fect impartiality  I  have  wished  to  observe.  I  have  tried  to  place 
each  form  of  worship  in  its  own  light ;  that  is,  as  it  appeared  to  those 
who  sincerely  believed  it  to  be  of  divine  origin.  But  even  this  candid 
method  must  necessarily  produce  a  very  imperfect  picture,  drawn  as 
it  is  by  a  modern  mind,  so  foreign  to  ancient  habits  of  thought,  and 
separated  from  them  by  the  lapse  of  ages.  The  process  has  been  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  ;  for  the  history  of  the  religious  sentiment,  strug- 
gling througli  theological  mazes,  furnishes  the  most  curious  chapter  in 
the  strange  history  of  mankind. 

I  offer  the  results  of  my  investigations  with  extreme  timidity.  Not 
because  I  am  afraid  of  public  opinion  ;  for  I  have  learned  to  place  ex- 
ceedingly little  value  on  anything  the  world  can  give,  or  take  away. 
But  I  have  been  oppressed  with  anxiety,  lest  I  should  not  perform  the 
important  task  I  had  undertaken  in  the  right  spirit  and  the  most  ju- 
dicious manner.  I  have  conscientiously  tried  to  do  it  with  great  care, 
fearless  truthfulness,  perfect  candour,  reverence  toward  God,  and  ten- 
derness for  human  nature.  I  have  sought  out  facts  diligently,  and 
stated  them  plainly  ;  leaving  the  reader  to  draw  his  own  conclusions 
freely,  uninfluenced  by  suggestions  from  me.  The  inferences  deduced 
from  my  statements  will  vary  according  to  the  predominance  of  the 
reverential,  or  the  rationalistic  element  in  character.  I  have  con- 
tented myself  with  patiently  digging  out  information  from  books  old 
and  new,  and  presenting  it  with  all  the  clearness  and  all  the  honesty 
of  which  T  am  capable.  To  write  with  the  unbiassed  justice  at  which 
I  aimed,  I  was  obliged  to  trample  under  my  feet  the  theological  under- 
brush, which  always  tangles  and  obstructs  the  path,  when  the  soul 
strives  to  be  guided  only  by  the  mild  bright  star  of  religious  sentiment. 
It  is  never  pleasant  to  walk  directly  through  and  over  the  opinions  of 
the  age  in  which  one  lives.  I  have  not  done  it  sarcastically,  as  if  I 
despised  them  ;  because  such  is  not  my  feeling.  I  have  done  it  in  a 
straight-forward  quiet  way,  as  if  I  were  unconscious  of  tlieir  exist- 
ence. 1  foresee  that  many  good  and  conscientious  people  will  con- 
siiicr  it  a  great  risk  to  treat  religious  history  in  this  manner.     If  T 


PREFACE.  IX 

could  have  avoided  giving  them  pain,  and  at  the  same  time  have 
written  with  complete  impartiality,  I  would  most  gladly  have  done 
60.  For  myself,  I  have  firm  faith  that  plain  statements  of  truth  can 
never  eventually  prove  injurious,  on  any  subject. 

Milton  has  expressed  this  conviction  with  rare  eloquence  :  "  Though 
all  the  winds  of  doctrine  be  let  loose  to  play  vipon  the  earth,  so  Truth 
be  in  the  field,  we  do  injuriously  to  doubt  her  strength.  Let  her  and 
falsehood  grapple.  Who  ever  knew  Truth  put  to  the  worse  by  a  free 
and  open  encounter?  Mcthinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puis- 
sant nation  rousing  herself  like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking 
her  invincible  locks.  Mcthinks  I  see  her  as  an  eagle  muing  her 
mighty  youth,  and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  mid-day 
beam ;  purging  and  unsealing  her  long  abused  sight  at  the  fountain 
itself  of  heavenly  radiance ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous 
flocking  birds,  with  those  also  who  love  the  twilight,  flutter  about, 
amazed  at  what  she  means,  and  in  their  envious  gabble  would  prog- 
nosticate a  year  of  sects  and  schisms.  What  would  ye  do  then? 
Should  ye  suppress  all  this  flowery  crop  of  knowledge,  sprung  up,  and 
yet  daily  springing  up  ?  Should  ye  set  an  oligarchy  of  twenty  engrossers 
over  it,  to  bring  a  famine  upon  our  minds  again,  when  we  shall  know 
nothing  but  what  is  measured  to  us  by  their  bushel  ?  Believe  it,  they 
who  counsel  you  to  such  suppressing,  do  as  good  as  bid  you  to  suppress 
yourselves." 

If  scholars  should  read  this  book,  they  may  perchance  smile  at  its 
extreme  simplicity  of  style.  But  I  have  written  for  the  popular  mind, 
not  for  the  learned.  I  have  therefore  aimed  principally  at  conciseness 
and  clearness.  I  have  recorded  dates,  and  explained  phrases,  sup- 
posed to  be  generally  understood,  because  I  know  there  are  many  in- 
telligent readers  not  familiar  with  such  dates  and  phrases,  and  who 
cannot  conveniently  refer  to  cyclopedias,  or  lexicons.  I  am  aware  of 
having  inserted  very  many  things,  which  are  perfectly  well  known  to 
everybody.  But  this  was  unavoidable,  in  order  to  present  a  continu- 
ous whole,  from  the  same  point  of  view.  Doubtless,  a  learned  person 
could  have  performed  the  task  far  better,  in  many  respects ;  but  on 
some  accounts,  my  want  of  learning  is  an  advantage.  Thoughts  do 
not  range  so  freely,  when  the  store-room  of  the  brain  is  overloaded 
with  furniture.  In  the  course  of  my  investigations,  I  have  frequently 
observed  that  a  great  amount  of  erudition  becomes  a  veil  of  thick 
clouds  between  the  subject  and  the  reader.  Moreover,  learned  men 
can  rarely  have  such  freedom  from  any  sectarian  bias,  as  the  circum- 
etances  of  my  life  have  produced  in  me. 

It  is  now  more  than  eight  years  since  I  first  began  this  task.     Had  1 


X  PREFACE. 

foreseen  how  far  my  little  boat  would  carry  me  out  to  sea,  1  certainly 
should  not  have  undertaken  tlie  voyage.  Unexpected  impediments  in- 
terrupted the  labour  during  three  years  ;  but  even  then  my  thoughts 
and  my  reading  were  continually  directed  toward  it.  I  have  been 
diligent  and  patient  in  procuring  and  comparing  facts,  from  sources 
deemed  perfectly  authentic,  and  I  have  been  scrupulously  conscien- 
tious in  the  statement  of  them.  I  may  have  made  mistakes ;  for  it  is 
not  easy  to  arrive  at  the  exact  truth  amid  a  mass  of  obscure  and  often 
contradictory  statements.  But  I  have  done  my  best ;  and  if  there  are 
errors,  they  have  not  proceeded  from  intention,  or  from  carelessness, 
have  not  asked  any  person  what  I  should  say,  or  how  I  should  say 
it.  My  natural  love  of  freedom  resisted  such  procedure  ;  and  foresee- 
ing that  I  might  incur  unpopularity,  I  was  unwilling  to  implicate  others. 
I  have,  therefore,  merely  stated  to  learned  men,  and  women,  that  I 
wished  for  information  on  specified  subjects,  and  inquired  of  them 
what  were  the  best  books  to  be  consulted.  I  have  sometimes  con- 
densed quotations,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  but  1  have  never  misquoted, 
or  misrepresented. 

I  am  not  aware  that  any  one,  who  truly  reverenced  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  has  ever  before  tried  the  experiment  of  placing  it  pre 
cisely  on  a  level  with  other  religions,  so  far  as  the  manner  of  repre- 
sentation is  concerned.  Even  wise  and  candid  men,  more  or  less 
unconsciously,  adopt  a  system  of  withholding  evidence  on  one  side, 
and  accumulating  it  on  the  other;  as  the  most  honest  lawyers  do, 
when  pleading  a  cause.  The  followers  of  all  religions  practise  self- 
deception  of  this  kind.  They  forget  that  most  human  beings  would 
seem  great  and  holy,  in  comparison  with  others,  if  all  the  weaknesses 
were  carefully  concealed  on  one  side,  and  protruded  into  prominence 
on  the  other;  if  all  the  excellences  were  rendered  conspicuous  on 
one  side,  and  kept  out  of  sight  on  the  other.  I  have  tried  to  avoid  this 
tendency.  1  have  given  beautiful  extracts  from  Platonic  philosophers, 
and  from  Christian  Fathers.  I  have  portrayed  the  benevolence  of 
bishops,  without  veiling  their  ambition,  or  intolerance.  I  have  not 
eulogized  any  doctrines  as  true,  or  stigmatized  any  as  false.  1  have 
simply  said  so  it  was  argued,  and  thus  it  was  decided.  I  knew  of  no 
other  method  by  which  complete  impartiality  could  be  attained. 

Some  may  consider  the  sketches  of  Apollonius,  Philo,  Cerinthus, 
Plotinus,  and  others,  as  irrelevant  to  the  history  of  Christianity.  But 
in  order  to  trace  the  progress  of  religious  ideas,  it  was  necessary  to  de- 
Bcribe  the  prominent  cliaracters,  and  external  inlliiences,  which  inodi- 
ficd  their  growtii  ;  for  the  surrounding  spiritual  atmosphere  airect.s  the 
formation  of  all  opinions.     I  have  therefore  endeavoured  ta  show  what 


rREFACK.  XI 

degree  of  preparation  there  was,  in  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  world,  for 
the  coming  of  Christianity,  and  then  what  kind  of  resistance  it  met,  in- 
ternally and  externally.  I  may  have  misunderstood  some  theological 
statements :  for  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  a  continuous  thread  from  the 
landed  skein  of  polemical  controversy  ;  which  constantly  reminds  me 
of  the  Scotch  definition  of  metaphysics:  "It  is  ane  mon  explcening  to 
anither  what  he  dinna  weel  understand  himsel." 

The  perfect  openness  with  which  I  have  revealed  many  particulars 
generally  kept  in  the  back  ground,  will  trouble  some  devotional 
people,  whose  feelings  I  would  not  willingly  wound.  But  I  place 
great  reliance  on  sincerity,  and  have  strong  faith  in  the  power  of  gen- 
uine Christianity  to  stand  on  its  own  internal  merits,  unaided  by  con- 
cealment. My  own  mind  has  long  been  desirous  to  ascertain  the 
plain  unvarnished  truth  on  all  these  subjects  ;  and  having  sought  it 
out,  I  felt  prompted  to  impart  it  to  those  who  were  in  a  similar  state. 
Those  who  wish  to  obtain  candid  information,  without  caring  whether 
it  docs,  or  does  not,  sustain  any  favourite  theory  of  their  own,  may 
perhiips  thank  me  for  saving  them  the  trouble  of  searching  through 
large  and  learned  volumes  for  scattered  items  of  information  ;  and  if 
they  complain  of  want  of  profoundness,  they  may  perchance  be  wil- 
ling to  accept  simplicity  and  clearness  in  exchange  for  depth.  In 
order  to  do  justice  to  the  book,  if  read  at  all,  it  ought  not  to  be  glanced 
at  here  and  there,  but  read  carefully  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  ; 
because  the  links  of  a  continuous  chain  are  preserved  throughout. 

Constant  reference  to  authorities  would  have  loaded  the  pages  with 
notes,  and  unpleasantly  interrupted  the  reading.  I  have  therefore 
given,  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  a  list  of  the  principal  books  I  have 
used,  which  can  be  examined  by  any  one  who  doubts  the  accuracy 
of  my  statements. 

Sustained  by  conscious  integrity  of  purpose,  and  having  executea 
my  task  faithfully,  according  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  I  quietly  leave 
the  book  to  its  fate,  whether  it  be  neglect,  censure,  or  praise. 


PROGRESS 


RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 


HINDOSTAN,  OR  INDIA. 

"The  countries  of  the  far  East  had  also  their  age  of  glory.  At  their 
fire  was  lighted  a  torch,  which  passing  from  tiie  hands  of  Eg3-ptians  to 
the  hands  of  Jews,  and  from  the  hands  of  Jews  to  the  hands  of  Christians, 
still  casts  its  gleams  nj)on  the  earth." 

The  name  of  this  country  was  derived  from  one  of  its 
principal  rivers.  Stan  signifies  land  ;  hence  it  came  to  be 
called  Indus-Stan,  land  of  the  Indus.  Hindoos  themselves 
called  it  by  a  name  signifying  "  The  Central  Land  ;"  some- 
times it  was  designated  as  "  The  Land  of  Righteousness." 
Within  the  last  century  their  literature  has  attracted  much 
attention,  and  the  careful  investigations  of  Oriental  scholars 
prove  them  to  have  been  a  civilized  people  at  a  period  ex- 
tremely remote.  In  times  coeval  with  the  earliest  authentic 
records,  they  could  calculate  eclipses,  and  were  venerated 
for  their  attainments  in  several  arts  and  sciences.  Some 
of  their  very  ancient  buildings  contain  the  twelve  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  represented  by  almost  precisely  the  same  em- 
blems now  in  use  among  us.  According  to  the  learned 
astronomer,  M.  Bailly,  their  observations  of  the  heavenly 

Vol.  i— 1  A 


2  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

bodies  may  be  dated  as  far  back  as  four  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  Sanscrit  language,  in  which 
their  Sacred  Books  are  written,  is  of  such  remote  antiquity, 
that  no  tradition  remains  of  any  people  by  whom  it  was 
originally  spoken;  and  their  mj^thological  sculptures,  cov- 
ering immense  masses  of  rock,  are  said  to  be  "  works 
which  make  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  seem  young." 

The  Hindoos  believed  themselves  to  have  been  the  first 
inhabitants  of  this  earth  ;  and  their  traditions  place  the 
creation  of  the  world  many  millions  of  3^ears  farther  back 
than  we  do.  First,  there  was  an  age  of  purity,  called  the 
Satya  Yug,  when  men  lived  to  an  immense  age,  and  were 
more  than  thirty  feet  high.  They  were  too  innocent  to 
have  need  of  government,  and  so  unselfish  that  all  the 
goods  of  life  were  equally  distributed. 

"  Delightful  times !  because 
Nature  then  veigned,  and  Nature's  laws  ; 
And  this  grand  truth  from  none  was  hidden, 
What  pleaseth  hath  no  law  forbidden." 

A  great  Deluge  swept  away  all  the  memorials  of  this  age. 
In  the  second  age,  called  Treta  Yug,  men  began  to  be 
vicious.  The  term  of  their  existence  was  much  shortened, 
and  Brahma  gave  them  rajahs,  or  princes,  to  rule  over 
them.  In  the  third  age,  called  the  Dvvapar  Yug,  vice  and 
virtue  became  equally  mingled,  and  the  lives  of  men  were 
again  shortened  one  thiixl.  Tiie  fourth  age,  called  the  Cali 
Yug,  though  much  shorter  than  the  others  in  duration,  is 
to  embrace  a  term  of  four  hundred  and  thirty-two  thousand 
years.  According  to  their  Sacred  Books,  it  commenced 
about  five  thousand  years  ago,  when  there  was  a  remark- 
able conjunction  of  the  planets.  In  this  age,  the  longest 
term  of  man's  life  is  limited  to  one  hundred  years,  and  his 
stature,  already  greatly  diininislied,  will  be  gradually  re- 
duced to  pigmy  size.  Wickedness  will  more  and  more 
abound  till  the  end  comes. 

Hindoos  liave  no  history  to  sustain  these  dates,  com- 
i)risinK  such  enormous  intervals  of  time.     Lists  of  kinffs, 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  3 

preserved  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  have  been  cal- 
3ulatecl  to  go  back  between  four  and  live  thousand  years. 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  some  indiviiluals  have  tem- 
peraments more  inclined  than  others  to  veneration  and 
mysticism  ;  and  the  remark  is  equally  applicable  to  nations. 
Tlie  Hindoos  are  peculiarly  ardent  and  susceptible,  and  as 
usual  with  such  organizations,  they  have  strong  devotional 
tendencies.  We  find  their  wise  men  of  ancient  time  neg- 
lecting historical  records,  and  pajnng  comparatively  slight 
attention  to  the  external  sciences,  but  meditating  earnestly, 
in.  the  loneliness  of  stately  forests,  on  the  origin  and  des- 
tiny of  the  human  soul.  Ecstatic  delight  in  nature,  exu- 
berant wealth  of  imagination,  a  pervading  reverence  for 
the  supernatural,  characterize  every  department  of  their 
literature.  The  same  religious  impress  is  on  their  history. 
They  have  been  patient  and  docile  under  every  foreign 
yoke,  so  long  as  they  were  unmolested  in  usages  deemed 
sacred  ;  but  the  moment  there  was  any  interference  with 
devotional  practices,  they  were  roused  at  once,  and  defended 
them  with  the  ferocity  of  tigers. 

The  first  question  which  perplexed  the  old  sages  of 
India,  standing  as  they  did  on  the  threshold  of  time,  was 
one  which  no  subtilty  of  human  intellect  has  yet  been 
able  to  solve.  They  asked.  Whence  came  Evil  ?  Con- 
ceiving, as  we  do,  that  the  Great  First  Cause  of  all  things 
must  be  good,  they  knew  not  how  to  account  for  disease 
and  wickedness.  They  did  not  ascribe  tliem  to  a  Bad 
Spirit,  almost  as  powerful  as  God  himself;  but  they  sup- 
posed that  Matter  was  Evil,  and  that  the  union  of  Spirit 
with  Matter  v/as  the  origin  of  all  sin,  sickness,  and  sorrow. 
This  visible  world,  including  mortal  bodies,  they  regarded 
as  mere  phantasmagoria,  without  any  reality ;  a  magic- 
lantern  show,  by  which  the  Divine  Mind,  for  inscrutable 
purposes,  deludes  us  into  the  belief  that  we  are  independent 
existences,  and  that  the  things  around  us  are  real.  Hence 
they  called  creation  Maya,  or  Illusion. 

This  theological  theory,  acting  on  temperaments  natu- 
rally plaintive  and  poetic,  produced  melancholy  views  of 


4  PKOGRESS    OF   KELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

life,  and  a  strong  inclination  toward  religious  ecstasy;  while 
at  the  same  time  warmth  of  climate  and  facility  of  procur- 
ing sustenance  predisposed  to  lassitude  and  gentle  reverie. 
In  times  ancient  beyond  conjecture,  there  were  men  among 
them  who  withdrew  altogether  from  the  labours  and  pleas- 
ures of  the  world,  and  in  solitary  places  devoted  them- 
selves entirely  to  religious  contemplation.  This  lonely 
existence  on  the  silent  mountains,  or  amid  the  darkness 
of  immense  forests,  infested  by  serpents  and  wild  beasts, 
and  as  they  believed  by  Evil  Spirits  also,  greatly  excited 
popular  imagination.  The  human  soul,  unsatisfied  in  its 
cage  of  finite  limitation,  is  always  aspiring  after  the  good 
and  the  true,  always  eagerly  hoping  for  messengers  from 
above,  and  therefore  prone  to  believe  in  them.  Thus  these 
saintly  hermits  came  to  be  objects  of  extreme  veneration 
among  the  people.  Men  travelled  far  to  inquire  of  them 
how  sins  might  be  expiated,  or  diseases  cured;  for  it  was 
believed  that  in  thus  devoting  themselves  to  a  life  beyond 
the  tumult  of  the  passions,  occupied  solely  with  penance 
and  pra3^er,  they  approached  very  near  to  God,  and  re- 
ceived direct  revelations  of  his  divine  wisdom. 

In  the  beginning,  these-anchorites  were  doubtless  influ- 
enced by  sincere  devotion,  and  made  honest  efforts  to  attain 
what  seemed  to  them  the  highest  standard  of  purity  and 
holiness.  Their  mode  of  life  was  simple  and  austere  in 
the  extreme.  They  lived  in  caverns,  or  under  the  shelter 
of  a  few  boughs,  which  they  twisted  together  in  the 
shadow  of  some  great  tree.  Their  furniture  consisted 
merely  of  an  antelope  skin  to  sleep  on,  a  vase  to  receive 
alms,  a  pitcher  for  water,  a  basket  to  gather  roots  and 
wihl  l)crries,  a  hatchet  to  cut  wood  for  sacrifices,  a  staff  to 
help  them  tliro\igh  the  forest,  and  a  rosary  made  of  lotus 
seeds,  to  assist  in  repeating  their  numerous  prayers.  The 
beard  and  nails  were  suffered  to  grow,  and  to  avoid  trouble 
with  tlicir  hiiir,  it  was  twisted  into  peculiar  knots,  resem 
bling  th(!  close  curls  of  an  African.  In  later  times,  they 
sliaved  their  licads,  probably  froni  motives  of  cleanliness. 
However  high  might  have  been  their  caste  in  the  society 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  $ 

Df  the  Avorld,  tlicy  retained  no  ornament,  or  badge  oi'  dis- 
tinction. They  wore  simply  a  coarse  yellowish  red  gar- 
ment made  of  the  fibres  of  bark.  Their  food  consisted 
of  wild  roots,  fruit,  and  grain ;  and  of  these  they  must 
eat  merely  enough  to  sustain  life.  They  might  receive 
food  as  alms,  or  even  ask  for  it,  in  cases  of  extreme  ne- 
cessity ;  but  they  must  strive  to  attain  such  a  state  of 
indifference,  that  they  felt  no  regret  if  refused,  and  no 
pleasure  if  they  received  it.  They  were  bound  to  the 
most  rigid  chastity,  in  thought  as  well  as  deed.  So  far  as 
they  coveted  the  slightest  pleasure  from  any  of  the  senses, 
so  far  were  they  from  their  standard  of  perfect  sanctity. 
Some  made  a  vow  of  continual  silence,  and  kept  a  skull 
before  them  to  remind  them  constantly  of  death.  Their 
occupations  were  to  cut  wood  for  sacrifices  by  fire;  to 
gather  roots  and  berries  for  daily  food,  deducting  a  portion 
to  be  offered  on  the  altars;  to  recite  prayers  three  times  a 
day,  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  always  preceded  by 
ablution;  to  repeat  sacred  sentences ;  to  go  through  daily 
ceremonies  for  the  spirits  of  departed  ancestors ;  to  offer 
sacrifices  at  the  new  moon  and  full  moon,  at  morning  and 
evening  twilight. 

In  addition  to  this  routine,  they  prescribed  to  themselves 
tasks  more  or  less  severe,  accordino;  to  the  des^ree  of  holi- 
ness  they  wished  to  attain,  or  had  courage  to  pursue. 
Some  fasted  to  the  very  verge  of  dissolution.  In  summer 
they  exposed  themselves  to  the  scorching  sun,  or  sur- 
rounded themselves  with  fires.  In  winter  they  wore  wet 
garments,  or  stood  up  to  the  chin  in  water.  They  went 
forth  uncovered  amid  frightful  tempests.  They  stood  for 
houis  and  da\'s  on  the  point  of  their  toes,  Avith  arms 
stretched  upward,  motionless  as  a  tree.  Tliey  sat  on  their 
lieels,  closing  tlieir  ears  tight  with  their  thumbs,  their  eyes 
with  the  forefingers,  their  nostrils  with  the  middle  fingers, 
and  their  lips  with  the  little  fingers;  in  this  attitude  they 
remained  holding  their  breath  till  they  often  fell  into  a  swoon. 

These  terrible  self-torments  resulted  from  their  belief 
that  this  life  was  merely  intended  for  exj^iation  ;  that  the 
Vol.   I.— 1* 


6  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

body  was  an  incumbrance,  and  the  senses  entirely  evil ; 
that  relations  to  outward  things  entangled  the  soul  in 
temptation  and  sin ;  that  man's  great  object  should  be  to 
withdraw  himself  entirely  from  Nature,  and  thus  become 
completely  absorbed  in  the  eternal  Soul  of  the  Universe, 
from  which  his  own  soul  originally  emanated. 

Penances  undertaken  for  sins  committed  were  supposed 
to  procure  no  otlier  advantage  than  the  remission  of  future 
punishment  for  those  sins;  but  sufferings  voluntarily  in- 
curred, merely  to  annihilate  the  body,  and  attain  nearness 
to  the  divine  nature,  were  believed  to  extort  miraculous 
gifts  from  supernatural  beings,  and  ultimately  enable  man 
to  become  God. 

Aiming  at  this  state  of  jDcrfection,  they  gradually  at- 
tained complete  indifference  to  all  external  tilings.  They 
no  longer  experienced  desire  or  disappointment,  hope  or 
fear,  joy  or  sorrow.  Some  of  them  went  entirely  naked, 
and  were  reputed  to  subsist  merely  on  water.  The  world 
was  to  them  as  thousrh  it  did  not  exist.  In  this  state  the 
w^ords  they  uttered  were  considered  divine  revelations. 
They  were  believed  to  know  everything  by  intuition ;  to 
read  the  mysteries  of  past,  pi-esent,  and  future;  to  perceive 
the  thoughts  of  whoever  came  into  their  presence ;  to 
move  from  one  place  to  another  by  simply  willing  to  do 
so ;  to  cure  diseases,  and  even  raise  the  dead.  Some  of 
this  marvellous  power  was  supposed  to  be  imparted  even 
to  tlie  garments  they  wore,  and  the  staffs  with  which  they 
walked.  The  Hindoo  Sacred  Writings  are  filled  with  all 
manner  of  miracles  performed  by  these  saints.  There 
are  traditions  that  some  of  them  were  taken  up  alive  to 
heaven;  and  impressions  on  the  rocks  are  shown,  said  to 
be  f()ot{)rints  they  left  when  they  ascended.  By  extraor- 
dinary ])uriri(;;iti()n  and  suffering,  some  were  reputed  to 
have;  ()btaiiii'(l  such  ])ovver,  even  over  tlie  gods,  that  they 
could  c'ouij)el  them  to  grant  wliatevcr  they  asked.  For 
this  reason  it  was  sup])osod  the  deities  were  not  well 
])li'as(-d  when  a  lici'mit  vowed  himself  to  remarkable 
cllbi'ts;  ami  they  sli'ove  to  seduce  him  from  his  purpose 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  7 

by  all  manner  of  temptations.  Hindoo  poems  abound 
with  legends  of  beautiful  nymphs  sent  on  such  missions, 
and  often  proving  successful.  The  holy  hermit  Visvami- 
tra  was  so  fascinated  by  the  nymph  Menaka,  that  live 
years  passed  in  her  society  seemed  to  him  but  a  single 
moment.  "  Alas !"  exclaimed  he,  "  what  has  become  of 
my  wisdom,  my  penitence,  my  firm  resolution?  Behold 
all  destroyed  at  once  by  a  woman!  Seduced  by  the  sin 
which  pleased  Indra,  I  see  myself  deprived  of  the  advan- 
tages I  had  gained  by  all  my  austerities." 

But  the  mission  of  these  nymphs  was  a  dangerous  one 
for  themselves  also;  for  if  the  holy  recluse  did  withstand 
their  attractions,  and  pronounce  a  curse  upon  them,  his 
words  must  inevitably  take  effect,  however  terrible  they 
might  be.  Thus  the  nymph  Rambba,  striving  to  seduce 
Visvamitra,  was,  by  the  foi-ce  of  his  imprecations,  changed 
to  a  pillar  of  stone  for  a  thousand  years.  The  most  power- 
ful kings  feared  the  malediction  of  these  highly  sanctified 
mortals,  and  sought  their  blessing  as  the  greatest  earthly 
good.  One  of  the  sacred  legends  thus  describes  the  recep- 
tion given  to  some  of  these  celebrated  anchorites,  by  the 
king  of  Lilipa: — "Penetrated  with  inexpressible  joy  and 
reverence,  he  bowed  his  face  to  the  earth  before  them. 
Having  caused  them  to  be  seated,  he  washed  their  feet, 
drank  a  portion  of  the  water,  and  poured  the  remainder 
on  his  head.  Joining  his  hands  upon  his  forehead,  he 
male  a  profound  obeisance,  and  thus  addressed  them  : — ■ 
'  Tlie  happiness  I  this  day  enjoy  can  only  be  in  reward  for 
some  good  works  I  have  performed  in  a  previous  state  of 
existence.  I  possess  all  desirable  good  in  seeing  your 
sacred  feet.  My  body  is  now  perfectly  pure,  since  I  have 
had  the  happiness  to  behold  you.  You  are  the  gods  whom 
I  serve.  I  recognize  no  others  but  you.  Henceforth,  I  am 
as  pure  as  the  waters  of  Ganges.' " 

The  site  chosen  for  hermitages  was  usually  in  the  midst 
of  picturesque  scenery,  on  the  side  of  mountains  com- 
manding an  extensive  prospect,  or  amid  the  cool  shadows 
of  majestic  groves.     It  was  considered  peculiarly  desirable 


8  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

to  be  near  the  meeting  of  two  sacred  rivers,  for  the  per- 
formance of  prescribed  ablutions  and  ceremonies.  A  very 
ancient  sacred  poem,  called  The  Mahabharata,  contains  tlie 
following  description  of  a  traveller  in  the  forest  approach- 
ing one  of  these  holy  places  : — "  The  distant  cry  of  deer, 
the  song  of  birds,  the  hum  of  bees,  resounded  gently  in 
his  ear,  and  conveyed  to  his  soul  an  inexpressible  feeling 
of  calm  happiness.  Graceful  trees  bent  under  the  weight 
of  fruits  and  flowers.  Their  flexible  branches  balanced 
themselves  to  the  breath  of  the  breeze,  which,  in  passing, 
took  from  them  the  sweetest  fragrance,  and  spread  it 
through  the  atmosphere.  On  the  enamelled  turf,  troops 
of  Gandharvas*  and  Asparas,f  brilliant  with  youth,  pur- 
sued each  other  in  froUcksome  play,  gliding  from  space  to 
space,  as  light  shadows.  He  was  bewildered  with  delight 
under  the  immense  bowers  of  verdure,  through  which 
quivering  rays  of  the  sun  penetrated  with  gentle  light,  and 
gave  only  warmth  enough  to  temper  the  freshness  of  their 
deep  shadows.  Plunged  in  soothing  reverie,  his  uncertain 
steps  wandered  toward  a  spot  where  all  the  beauties  of  the 
scene  united.  The  river  Malini  rippled  and  played  with 
many  couples  of  brilliantly  white  swans,  and  on  its 
borders  he  perceived  a  sacred  grove,  which  he  conjectured 
might  be  the  retreat  of  some  holy  personage.  This  happy 
corner  of  the  earth  did  in  fact  enclose  a  peaceful  hermitage 
■within  its  bosom." 

These  hermits,  in  obedience  to  the  injunctions  of  Hindoo 
religion,  imparted  freely  of  all  they  had  to  men  and 
animals.  Thus  their  places  of  retreat  came  to  be  con- 
sidered open  asylums  for  the  poor,  and  for  travellers.  The 
saints  were  gradually  classified  into  different  orders,  bear- 
ing various  names,  indicating  progressive  degrees  of  sanc- 
tity;  such  as,  "the  dweller  in  the  forest,"  "the  man  vowed 
to  contemplation,"  "  the  man  who  has  subdued  himself," 
•'  the  man  who  is  absoi-bed  into  the  Divine  Soul."     The 


*  Musicifuw  of  t.lic  air,  tlie  Spirits  of  Singing  Stars, 
f  Kyiiiplis  who  dance  and  sing  in  Paradise. 


IIIXDOSTAN",    OR   INDIA.  9 

more  a  hermit  was  renowned  for  holiness,  the  greater  num- 
ber of  disciples  he  attracted  toward  him;  till  in  many 
places  his  solitary  grotto,  or  hut,  came  to  be  surrounded  by 
a  small  village  of  rude  huts.  Younger  men,  who  sought 
him  for  instruction,  were  bound  to  treat  him  with  unlimited 
reverence,  and  implicitly  obey  all  his  injunctions.  Tims 
sometliing  resembling  monasteries,  or  theological  schools, 
was  established  in  the  forests  of  llindostan,  at  a  very  remote 
period  of  antiquit\\  Seven  of  the  most  ancient  of  these 
hermits,  peculiarly  renowned  for  wisdom  and  holiness, 
transmitted  their  privileges  to  descendants,  and  thus  became 
the  germ  of  seven  classes  in  an  hereditary  priesthood  still 
existing  under  the  name  of  Brahmins. 

There  were  many  hermits  not  vowed  to  their  ascetic 
vocation  for  life.  It  was  common  for  men  who  had  com- 
mitted crimes  to  retire  into  the  forest  for  a  certain  number 
of  months,  or  years,  and  undergo  painful  penances,  to 
escape  future  punishment  for  their  fliults,  and  be  restored 
to  society  with  renovated  character.  Sometimes  kings, 
who  had  been  dethroned  by  conquest,  or  merchants  who 
had  lost  their  wealth,  retired  from  the  world  and  performed 
sacrifices  to  regain  their  lost  fortune.  This  course  was 
respected  as  pious  and  meritorious ;  but  it  was  deemed  a 
great  sin  for  such  men  to  represent  themselves  as  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  voluntary  saints.  They  often  became 
so  attached  to  their  secluded  life,  that  they  were  reluctant 
to  return  to  the  world,  when  the  period  of  their  vow  had 
expired.  One  of  them  is  represented  as  thus  bidding  fare- 
well to  Irts  retreat : — "  Oh,  mountain,  perpetual  asylum  of 
holy  hermits,  who  have  given  themselves  up  to  the  medi- 
tation of  virtue,  and  the  practice  of  pure  works !  Oh,  king 
of  mountains,  rich  in  purifying  streams,  adieu !  I  have 
passed  happy  days  upon  thy  heiglits.  I  have  nourished 
myself  with  the  delicious  fruits  thou  hast  produced,  and 
have  quenched  mj^  thirst  with  the  clear  waters  that  flow 
from  thy  summit.  Oh,  mountain  pure  from  sin!  Like 
unto  a  living  child  happy  on  the  breast  of  his  father,  have 
I  enjoyed  myself  upon  thy  bosom,  peopled  with  grorpg 


10  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  Nymphs,  and  resounding  with  praises  of  Brahma." 
The  most  spiritual  portion  of  the  Hindoo  Sacred  Books 
teach  the  existence  of  one  invisible  God,  whom  they  call 
Brahm.  They  make  no  images  of  him,  and  build  no 
temples  for  his  worship.  His  name  is  never  uttered  by  a 
pious  Hindoo.  None  of  their  traditions  represent  him  as 
incarnated  in  any  form  ;  because  they  believe  him  to  be 
entirely  above  human  comprehension,  and  altogether  in- 
capable of  the  slightest  change  in  his  existence.  Nature 
is  the  inferior,  passive  portion  of  him.  "  Brahm  and  Nature 
are  one,  as  the  soul  and  body  of  man  are  one.  All  things 
emanate  from  him,  all  is  he,  and  all  returns  to  him.  As 
plants  grow  out  of  the  earth  and  return  to  it  again,  so  does 
everytliing  in  the  universe  emanate  from  this  divine 
essence,  subsist  continually  by  it,  and  finally  return  to  it." 
This  law  of  alternate  emanation  and  absorption  governs 
all  things,  from  a  musquito  up  to  planets,  and  celestial 
Spirits.  Their  vast  divisions  of  time,  called  Yugs,  are 
founded  on  the  apparent  revolution  of  the  fixed  stars. 
Four  of  these  Yugs,  including  millions  of  our  years,  form 
their  Great  Astronomical  Year.  When  this  period  is  com- 
pleted, their  Sacred  Books  declare  that  the  god  Siva,  with 
ten  Spirits  of  Dissolution,  will  roll  a  comet  under  the 
moon,  set  the  earth  on  fire,  and  reduce  it  all  to  ashes. 
After  a  time  the  elements  will  resume  their  order,  and  the 
world,  restored  to  pristine  beautj^,  will  again  pass  through 
a  similar  succession  of  Yugs.  One  thousand  of  these  great 
cycles  form  only  a  single  day  in  the  life  of  Brahma,  the 
Creator,  who  was  the  first  Spirit  that  emanated  from 
Brahm.  At  the  end  of  this  long  day,  he  falls  asleep;  and 
then  not  only  this  earth,  but  all  things  in  the  universe,  dis- 
solve into  their  original  elements.  His  night  is  of  the 
same  immense  duration  as  his  day.  Wlien  he  wakes  up 
tlic  universe  is  renewed,  to  travel  through  a  similar  course, 
and  again  arrive  at  universal  dissolution.  Thirty  such 
days  make  one  month  of  Brahma;  twelve  months  his 
year;  a  hundred  such  years  his  age;  of  which  they  assert 
fifty  have  already  elapsed.     When  the  other  half  of  this 


IIINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  11 

destined  term  is  completed,  he  himscif  will  be  again 
absorbed  in  Brahm  ;  Matter  will  be  totally  annihilated, 
and  the  invisible  Supreme  Being,  called  Brahm,  will  alone 
exist.  After  another  vast  period  there  will  commence  a 
new  series  of  emanations  of  gods,  subordinate  spirits, 
worlds,  men,  and  inferior  existences. 

Tliis  idea  of  God  in  all  things,  and  all  things  in  God,  is 
called  Pantheism,  from  Greek  words  signifying  God  in 
All.  When  the  mind  is  strongly  impressed  with  this 
belief,  and  conscientiously  acts  upon  it,  the  effect  is  great 
tenderness  toward  animals,  and  reverence  for  Nature ; 
because  the  minutest  form  of  being  is  regarded  as  a  por- 
tion of  Deity.  Thus  the  Hindoo  saint  extends  hospitality 
alike  to  friends  and  enemies.  When  he  eats,  he  shares 
his  food  with  whatever  creature  presents  itself.  He  re- 
fi-ains  from  honey,  from  reluctance  to  deprive  bees  of  their 
nourishment.  He  will  not  eat  flesh,  because  he  shrinks 
from  causing  the  death  of  any  animal.  He  avoids  lighting 
a  candle  at  night  lest  insects  should  be  drawn  into  the 
flame;  and  he  filters  the  water  he  drinks,  lest  he  should 
incautiously  swallow  some  creature.  He  will  not  even 
pluck  fruit  with  violence,  but  eats  only  such  as  falls  of 
itself,  because  in  trees  and  bushes  also  he  beholds  living 
beings,  portions  of  the  Universal  Soul. 

They  believe  that  all  life,  whether  in  essence  or  form, 
proceeds  constantly  from  Brahm,  through  a  variety  of 
mediums.  If  any  creature  imagines  ft)r  a  moment  that  he 
has  existence  in  himself,  out  of  the  Divinity,  it  is  the  effect 
of  magical  illusion,  by  which  Brahma  himself,  for  incom- 
prehensible reasons,  takes  captive  his  senses. 

The  action  of  Brahm  upon  Nature,  and  upon  human 
souls,  is  through  a  variety  of  Spirits,  presiding  over  the 
planets,  the  elements,  and  all  the  forces  of  Nature.  All 
in  the  scale  of  being  are  emanations  from  him,  in  success- 
ive gradations.  The  highest  of  these  emanations  are 
Brahma,  the  Creator,  Vishnu,  the  Preserver,  and  Siva,  the 
Destroyer,  who  is  likewise  the  Reproducer  of  forms. 
Brahma  is  represented  in  poetry,  and  in  painted  sculpture. 


12  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

as  a  golden-coloured  human  figure,  with  three  heads  and 
four  arms.  He  is  never  described  as  assuming  the  form  of 
any  of  the  inferior  orders  of  beings,  or  as  living  upon  the 
earth  in  a  visible  body.  His  name  is  held  in  exceeding 
reverence,  and  none  but  the  Brahmins  utter  it.  They 
make  daily  invocations  to  him,  and  sometimes  offer  him  a 
flower.  No  sect  of  worshippers  bears  his  name,  and  no 
temples  or  festivals  are  appropriated  to  hira.  This  may 
be  because  his  high  rank  inspires  awe,  and  seems  to  carry 
him  beyond  the  range  of  human  sympathies ;  or.  it  may 
be  that  his  work  as  Creator  being  finished,  mortals  do  not 
feel  the  need  of  his  interference.  He  is  represented  as  in- 
habiting a  magnificent  temple,  called  Dheira,  near  the  Sea 
of  Milk,  in  the  upper  celestial  regions.  Thither  Vishnu, 
and  other  deities,  repair  in  emergencies,  to  consult  his 
oracle  ;  but  the  response  becomes  audible  only  after  days 
of  devotion  and  prayer.  All  seems  to  indicate  that  Brah- 
ma was  the  expression  of  a  more  spiritual  idea,  than  the 
other  deities. 

Poets  and  sculptors  represent  Vishnu  as  a  handsome 
young  man  of  blue  complexion,  with  four  arms.  One 
holds  a  shell,  another  a  lotus  blossom,  another  a  mace, 
another  a  ring,  which  radiates  a  stream  of  light.  He  is 
clothed  in  yellow,  with  a  jewelled  crown,  and  a  necklace 
of  gems.  When  asleep,  he  floats  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  cradled  in  the  folds  of  the  huge  star-covered  ser- 
pent Seshanaga,  whose  thousand  heads  serve  him  for  a 
pillow.  He  has  a  multitude  of  names,  and  is  represented 
in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  He  seems  much  nearer  to  the 
human  heart  than  Brahma ;  for  his  power  and  mercy  are 
supposed  to  be  constantly  exerted  to  uphold  the  universe, 
to  prevent  calamity,  and  relieve  distress.  He  is  revered 
as  a  household  god,  and  is  invoked  to  avert  family  misfor- 
tunes, or  to  obtain  blessings  when  about  to  occupy  a  new 
dwelling.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  repeatedly  incar- 
nated on  earth,  for  beneficent  purposes.  His  beautiful 
v/ife  Lacshmi  on  such  occasions  assumes  a  female  form  and 
accompanies  him  among  mortals,  till  his  mission  is  com- 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  13 

pletcd.  No  bloody  sacrifices  are  offered  to  him,  but  obla- 
tions of  fruit,  flowers,  water,  clarified  butter,  sweetmeats, 
rich  garments,  and  jewels. 

Siva  has  a  vast  variety  of  titles,  among  which  the  most 
common  is  Malia  Deva,  the  Great  God.  Tlie  sculptures 
represent  him  in  many  different  ways;  but  he  may  always 
be  known  by  certain  symbols  that  belong  to  him.  He  is 
sometimes  painted  red,  sometimes  silver-coloured:  seated 
on  a  tiger's  skin,  and  clothed  with  an  elephant's  hide. 
Sometimes  he  rides  on  a  white  bull,  his  eyes  inflamed  with 
intoxication.  Sometimes  he  is  painted  with  one  head, 
sometimes  with  five ;  always  with  three  eyes,  one  in  the 
middle  of  his  forehead.  Sometimes  he  is  represented  as 
half  man  and  half  woman.  As  the  reproducer  of  forms, 
he  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  male  Emblem  of  Gene- 
ration. As  a  personification  of  time,  the  Destroyer,  he  is  a 
dusky  youth,  with  red  garments,  a  chaplet  of  sculls  about 
his  neck,  and  a  trident  in  his  hand.  Because  he  repro- 
duces forms,  as  well  as  destroys  them,  he  is  often  painted 
with  the  venomous  serpent  Cobra  de  Capello,  emblem  of 
death,  in  one  hand,  and  a  Lotus  and  Pomegranate,  emblems 
of  renovation,  in  the  other. 

Hindoos,  accustomed  to  the  pomp  and  retinue  of  their 
earthly  princes,  assigned  a  vast  number  of  agents  to  supe- 
rior deities.  Indra,  God  of  the  Firmament,  is  represented 
as  a  beautiful  youth,  whose  garment  is  covered  with  eyes, 
to  represent  the  all-seeing  Spirits  of  the  Stars.  He  rides 
on  a  white  elephant,  and  is  armed  with  a  thunderbolt. 
Three  hundred  and  thirty-two  millions  of  Spirits,  divided 
into  classes,  of  various  ranks  and  employments,  acknow- 
ledge him  as  their  leader.  Poets  and  painters  represent 
Surya,  God  of  the  Sun,  in  a  golden  car,  drawn  by  seven 
green  horses,  with  the  Dawn  for  charioteer,  followed  by 
Spirits  of  Singing  Stars  chanting  his  praises.  There  are 
various  legends  of  his  descending  to  earth  in  a  human 
shape,  and  becoming  the  father  of  a  numerous  progeny. 
Two  of  his  sons  are  always  painted  as  Twins,  said  to  have 
been  born  of  a  marc  impregnated  by  sunbeams.  The 
Vol.  I.— 2 


14  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Moon  is  a  male  deity,  sometimes  called  Soma,  but  more 
frequently  Chandra.  Their  most  ancient  sovereigns  were 
called  Surya-bans  and  Chandra- bans,  Children  of  the  Sun 
and  Moon,  to  imply  a  descent  nearer  to  the  gods  than  that 
of  other  mortals.  Genesa,  God  of  Wisdom,  is  greatly  re- 
vered. They  never  build  a  house,  or  commence  any  im- 
portant business,  without  offering  him  flowers,  or  sprin- 
kling his  image  with  oil.  They  do  not  even  write  a  letter, 
or  open  a  book,  without  uttering  a  brief  invocation  to  him. 
He  is  painted  with  an  elephant's  head,  and  is  always  at- 
tended by  a  rat,  which  they  consider  a  very  sagacious  and 
prudent  animal.  Nareda,  God  of  Music,  who  invented  the 
vina,  or  Hindoo  lute,  is  not  only  a  musician  of  admirable 
skill,  but  also  a  wise  legislator,  an  eloquent  messenger  of 
the  gods,  and  renowned  in  arts  and  arms.  Parvati,  God- 
dess of  Enchantments,  was  born  of  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
Her  son  Cama,  God  of  Love,  is  painted  riding  on  a  parrot, 
attended  by  dancing  nymphs,  the  foremost  of  whom  carries 
his  flag,  a  fish  painted  on  a  red  ground.  His  bow  is  made 
of  sugar-cane,  his  string  is  made  of  bees,  and  his  five  ar- 
rows (the  senses)  are  each  pointed  with  some  heating  plant. 
His  wife  is  Reti,  Goddess  of  Affection.  Pavana  is  God  of 
the  Winds ;  Agnee  of  fire ;  Varuna  of  the  Waters.  In 
their  state  of  astronomical  knowledge,  the  luminaries  named 
by  us  Sun,  i\Ioon,  Mars,  Mercury,  Jupiter,  Venus  and  Sa- 
turn, were  considered  the  seven  planets.  Successive  days 
were  set  apart  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  presiding  Spirits  of 
these  orbs ;  each  of  which  is  supposed  to  have  particular 
superintendence  over  the  day  assigned  to  him.  Each  sign 
of  the  Zodiac  has  its  deity,  with  various  subordinates. 
There  are  genii  of  the  hours,  and  even  of  the  minutes. 
Every  mountain  and  river  has  its  guardian  Spirit.  One 
god  is  the  protector  of  soldiers,  another  of  travellers. 
One  is  prayed  to  for  a  ha}ii)y  marriage,  another  for  the 
])reservation  of  health.  Tlio  dark  goddess  Cali,  wife  of 
Siva  the  Destroyer,  is  the  chosen  patron  of  robbers  and 
murderer.s. 

Their   most   ancient   Sacred   Books    mention    but   few 


niXDOSTAN,    OR   IXDIA.  15 

Spirits,  and  command  sacrifices  to  be  offered  to  each, 
without  neglecting  any.  This  was  perhaps  intended  to 
prevent  any  one  of  them  from  becoming  elevated  above 
the  idea  of  a  mere  symbol,  or  instrument,  of  the  Supreme 
Being.  Poets  afterwards  indulged  in  great  luxuriance  of 
imagination,  and  a  long  train  of  deities  were  added,  whose 
adventures  came  to  be  regarded  as  sacred  history. 

Among  the  innumerable  Intelligences  emanating  from 
Brahm  in  successive  gradations,  they  believe  that  some 
fell  into  lower  spheres,  because  they  turned  away  their 
minds  from  contemplating  the  Supreme  One.  Through 
the  intercession  of  Spirits,  who  had  not  fallen  from  their 
original  state,  this  world  was  created  as  a  place  of  proba- 
tion for  these  wandering  souls,  and  mortal  bodies  were 
provided  for  them  to  enter.  Through  this  penance,  if 
faithfully  performed,  they  might  work  their  way  upward 
to  the  primeval  condition  from  which  they  fell.  But  if 
they  sinned  without  making  due  atonement  for  their 
offences,  they  must  fall  still  lower  in  the  scale  of  being, 
and  thus  their  penance  might  be  renewed  and  prolonged 
through  indefinite  ages. 

A  legion  of  Evil  Spirits,  called  Rakshasas,  had  a  prince 
named  Ravana.  Numerous  classes  of  Good  and  Evil 
Spirits,  called  Sooras  and  Assooras,  are  represented  as  step- 
brothers in  perpetual  hostility,  to  illustrate  the  supposed 
antagonism  between  Spirit  and  Matter.  Wicked  Spirits 
are  generally  described  as  giants,  and  are  often  said  to 
have  a  Great  Serpent  for  their  leader.  They  were  con- 
tinually aiming  to  do  injury  to  mankind,  and  fought  des- 
perate battles  with  ludra.  and  his  Spirits  of  Light.  They 
would  have  taken  his  Paradise  by  storm,  and  subverted 
the  whole  order  of  the  universe  if  Brahma  had  not  sent 
Vishnu  to  circumvent  their  plans.  To  perform  this  mis- 
sion successfully,  he  assumed  various  forms  at  different 
times,  and  ^\as  twice  incarnated  in  a  human  body,  and 
dwelt  among  mortals. 

The  wonderful  and  universal  J30wer  of  light  and  heat 
have  caused  the  Sun  to  be  worshipped  as  a  visible  emblem 


IGt  PROGRESS   OP   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  deity  in  the  infancy  of  nearly  all  nations.  "Water, 
wbich  cleanses  from  pollution,  and  performs  such  an  im- 
portani  part  in  sustaining  animal  and  vegetable  life,  is 
recognized  as  another  obvious  symbol  of  divine  influence. 
Hence  the  sacred  rivers,  fountains,  and  wells,  abounding 
in  Hindostan.  The  Air  is  likewise  to  them  a  consecrated 
emblem.  Invisible,  pervading  all  space,  and  necessary  to 
the  life  of  all  creatures,  it  naturally  suggests  the  spirit  of 
God.  Nearly  all  languages  describe  the  soul  by  some 
phrase  similar  in  signification  to  "the  breath  of  life." 
Brahm  is  sometimes  called  Alma,  or  the  Breathing  Soul. 
Regarding  the  air  as  his  breath,  it  forms  part  of  their 
religious  exercises  to  retain  it  in  their  lungs  as  long  as 
possible,  as  one  means  of  prolonging  contact  with  the 
Universal  Soul. 

Other  emblems  deemed  sacred  by  Hindoos,  and  wor- 
shipped in  their  temples,  have  brought  upon  them  the 
charge  of  gross  indecency.  But  if  it  be  true  at  the  present 
time,  it  probably  Avas  not  so  in  the  beginning.  AVhen  the 
world  was  in  its  infancy,  people  spoke  and  acted  with 
more  of  the  simplicity  and  directness  of  little  children, 
than  they  do  at  present.  In  the  individual  child,  and  in 
the  childhood  of  society,  whatever  is  incomprehensible 
jDroduces  religious  awe.  As  the  reflective  faculties  de- 
velop man  is  solemnly  impressed  with  the  wonders  of 
creation,  in  the  midst  of  which  his  soul  wakes  up,  as  it 
were,  from  a  dream.  And  what  so  miraculous  as  the  ad- 
vent of  this  conscious  soul  into  the  marvellous  mechanism 
of  a  human  body?  If  Light,  with  its  grand  revealings, 
and  Heat  making  the  earth  fruitful  with  beauty,  excited 
wonder  and  worship  in  the  first  inhabitants  of  our  world, 
is  it  strange  that  they  likewise  regarded  with  reverence 
the  great  mystery  of  human  Birth  ?  Were  thei/  impure 
thus  to  regard  it?  Or  are  ive  impure  that  we  do  not 
so  regard  it?  We  have  travelled  far,  and  unclean  have 
been  the  paths,  since  those  old  anchorites  first  spoke  of 
God  and  the  soul  in  the  solemn  depths  of  their  forest 
Banctuaries.     Let  us  not  smile  at  their  mode  of  tracing  the 


HLVDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  17 

Infinite  and  Incomprehensible  Cause  tlirongliont  all  the 
mysteries  oi"  Nature,  lest  by  so  doing  we  cast  the  sliadovv 
of  our  own  grossness  on  their  patriarchal  simplicity. 

From  time  immemorial,  an  emblem  has  been  wor- 
shipped in  Ilindostan  as  the  type  of  creation,  or  the 
origin  of  life.  It  is  the  most  common  symbol  of  Siva, 
and  is  universally  connected  with  his  worship.  To  un- 
derstand the  original  intention  of  this  custom,  we  should 
remember  that  Siva  was  not  merely  the  reproducer  of 
human  forms;  he  represented  the  Fructifying  Principle, 
the  Generating  Power  that  pervades  the  universe,  produ- 
cing sun,  moon,  stars,  men,  animals,  and  plants.  The  sj'm- 
bol  to  which  we  have  alluded  is  always  in  his  temples. 
It  is  usually  placed  in  the  inmost  recess,  or  sanctuary, 
sculptured  in  granite,  marble,  or  ivory,  often  crowned 
with  flowers,  and  surmounted  by  a  golden  star.  Lamps 
are  kept  burning  before  it,  and  on  festival  occasions  it  is 
illuminated  by  a  lamp  with  seven  branches,  supposed  to 
represent  the  plauets.  Small  images  of  this  emblem, 
carved  in  ivory,  gold,  or  crystal,  are  often  worn  as 
ornaments  about  the  neck.  The  ^^ious  use  them  in  their 
jirayers,  and  often  have  them  buried  with  them.  Devotees 
of  Siva  have  it  written  on  their  foreheads  in  the  form  of 
a  perpendicular  mark.  The  maternal  emblem  is  likewise  a 
religious  type,  and  worshippers  of  Vishnu  represent  it  on 
their  foreheads  by  a  horizontal  mark,  with  three  short  per- 
pendicular lines. 

The  serious  impression  made  on  the  minds  of  ancient 
devotees  by  the  great  mysteries  of  conception  and  birth,  is 
everywhere  observable  in  the  metaphysical  theories  and  re- 
ligious ceremonies  of  Ilindostan.  They  suppose  that  Brahm 
comprised  within  himself  both  the  masculine  and  feminine 
principle,  therefore  his  name  is  in  the  neuter  gender.  By 
thought  he  separated  the  two,  and  produced  Brahma,  who 
is  often  called  the  "First  Male  of  the  Universe."  His 
wife  is  Sereswaty,  Goddess  of  Imagination  and  Invention, 
from  whom  proceeded  first  music,  then  language,  litera- 
ture, and  the  arts.  By  her  aid  Brahma  formed  the  mun- 
VoL.  1.— 2* 


18  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

dane  egg,  which  produced  our  world.  Every  masculine 
deity  has  a  feminine  companion,  through  whose  agency 
new  forms  of  being  are  produced.  Lacshmi,  Goddess  of 
Abundance,  who  presides  over  harvests,  is  mate  of  Vishnu, 
the  Preserver.  Siva  has  numerous  wives,  according  to 
liis  various  titles  in  the  multifarious  departments  of  de- 
struction or  change.  Under  the  name  of  Iswara,  he  is 
wedded  to  Isa,  or  Isi,  supposed  to  rei^resent  Nature,  which 
in  all  languages  is  metaphorically  called  she.  As  changer 
of  the  seasons,  and  promoter  of  germination,  he  unites 
with  Parvati,  Goddess  of  Illusions  or  Enchantments.  As 
Time,  the  Destroyer,  his  mate  is  the  dark  goddess  Cali, 
with  four  hands,  full  of  deadly  weapons,  a  necklace  of 
human  siculls,  and  a  girdle  of  slaughtered  giants'  hands. 

There  is  a  very  striking  difference  in  the  habits  of  the 
Asiatic  and  European  mind  with  regard  to  ideas  deemed 
by  us  indelicate.  Hindoo  Sacred  Writings  abound  with 
metaphors  drawn  from  sexual  love,  to  illustrate  the  in- 
timate and  fruitful  union  of  God  with  Nature.  So  com- 
pletely do  they  mingle  natural  and  spiritual  ideas  on  this 
subject,  that  even  volujituous  scenes  in  their  amorous 
])oetry  are  often  allegorical  descriptions  of  the  blessed 
absorption  of  a  sanctified  human  soul  into  the  Divine 
Soul  of  the  Universe.  Sir  William  Jones  remarks; — "It 
never  seems  to  have  entered  the  heads  of  Hindoo  legisla- 
tors, or  peoi)lo,  that  anything  natural  could  be  offensively 
obscene;  a  singularity  which  pervades  all  their  writing 
and  conversation,  but  is  no  proof  of  the  depravity  of  their 
morals." 

Hindoo  theology  teaches  that  there  exists  an  eternal 
unchangeable  relation  of  mutual  dependence  between  all 
things  in  the  universe.  The  gods  cannot  exist  without 
offerings  from  men,  and  men  cannot  subsist  without  gifts 
from  the  gods.  Their  Sacred  Books  declare  that  "the 
virtuous  guid(!  the.  sun  by  their  truth,  and  sustain  the 
enrtli  by  their  iioly  sacrilices."  Departed  souls  are  de- 
y)endent  on  the  good  offices  of  those  who  survive  them; 
liiereforc  it  is  enjoined  that  sacrifices  be  performed  for  the 


IIINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  19 

Bouls  of  ancestors  as  fur  back  as  the  third  generation. 
There  must  be  daily  offerings  of  water,  witli  prescribed 
prayers ;  and  on  the  first  day  of  every  new  moon  more 
elaborate  ceremonies  and  prayers.  It  is  supposed  that 
these  help  to  abridge  the  term  of  punishment  for  sins 
committed  in  the  body.  If  neglected,  the  desolate  spirit 
may  be  left  to  hover  about  the  grave  of  its  buried  form, 
or  linger  long  in  some  inferior  animal,  or  suffer  torment 
in  the  infernal  reoions. 

The  division  of  society  into  castes  is  a  part  of  their 
system  of  regular  gradation  and  mutual  dependence. 
Tliey  consider  their  own  nation  set  apart  from  others,  a 
pre-eminently  pure  race,  to  whom  the  laws  of  divine 
wisdom  have  been  peculiarly  intrusted.  They  regard 
other  nations  as  barbarian,  and  consider  it  pollution  to 
intermingle  with  them  by  marriage,  or  even  by  eating 
Avith  them.  Foreigners  are  not  allowed  to  read  their  Holy 
Books,  or  approach  their  consecrated  groves  and  fountains. 
Sir  James  Forbes  speaks  of  a  Mahometan  who,  bathing  in 
one  of  their  sacred  pools,  unconscious  of  prohibition,  had 
both  his  hands  cut  otf.  If  a  member  of  any  other  nation 
happens  to  enter  the  hut  of  one  of  his  Hindoo  servants, 
the  furniture  is  tossed  out  of  doors,  because  it  is  deemed 
polluted  by  his  presence.  Bishop  Heber  says: — "We  came 
to  a  shed  where  a  man  with  his  wife  and  children  were 
cooking  their  supper.  The  man  called  out  to  us  for 
heaven's  sake  not  to  come  near  them,  for  he  was  a 
Bramin,  and  our  approach  would  oblige  him  to  fling 
away  his  food." 

Among  themselves,  they  are  divided  into  four  great 
castes,  and  these  again  are  subdivided  into  several  branches. 
The  highest  are  the  Bramins,  or  priests,  supposed  to  have 
issued  from  the  mouth  of  Brahma,  to  pray,  read,  and  in- 
struct. The  second  are  Cshatriyas,  princes  and  warriors, 
sprung  from  the  arms  of  Brahma,  to  fight  and  govern. 
The  third  are  Vaisyas,  from  his  belly  and  thighs,  to  sup- 
ply the  necessities  of  human  life  by  agriculture  and  com- 
merce.    The  fourth  are  Soodras,  from  his  feet,  to  serve  as 


20  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

meclianics  and  labourers.  Numerous  inferior  classes  have 
sprung  up  from  unlawful  intermixtures.  The  lowest  and 
most  degraded  of  all  these  are  the  Pariahs,  who  now  con- 
stitute about  one-fifth  of  the  population.  They  are  obliged 
to  bury  the  corpses  of  criminals,  and  are  allowed  to  hold 
no  property  but  dogs  and  asses.  They  are  forbidden  to 
enter  the  temples,  or  dwellings  of  any  of  the  other  castes; 
to  eat  in  their  presence,  or  even  to  drink  from  their  wells. 
The  Code  of  Menu  says :  "  Let  no  man  who  regards  his 
duty,  religious  or  civil,  hold  any  intercourse  with  them." 
Each  caste  is  perpetually  separated  from  another  by  the 
strictest  prohibitions.  One  must  never  presume  to  perform 
any  business  or  duty  that  has  been  appropriated  to  another. 
It  is  a  disgrace  and  a  sin  to  intermarry  or  intermingle. 
They  are  not  even  allowed  to  eat  with  each  other.  It  is  a 
heavy  punishment  to  be  degraded  into  a  lower  caste ;  for 
it  involves  a  social  stigma,  banishment  from  family  and 
friends,  and  transmission  of  disgrace  to  posterity.  No  de- 
gree of  talent  or  merit  can  regain  the  position  forfeited  by 
an  ancestor's  fault. 

The  Bramins,  above  all  others,  are  endowed  with  ex- 
clusive privileges.  Religious  ceremonies,  public  or  private, 
can  be  performed  only  by  their  ministry.  They  offer  sac- 
rifices and  prayers  for  themselves  and  for  others.  Every 
important  epoch  in  human  life,  and  every  national  emer- 
gency, require  their  aid.  The  civil  law  is  all  contained  in 
the  Sacred  Books,  which  they  alone  are  allowed  to  study 
and  explain;  consequently,  they  are  the  only  lawyers  and 
judges.  All  knowledge  of  medicine  is  derived  from  the 
same  volumes;  and  sickness  being  considered  a  punish- 
ment for  transgression,  penances  and  religious  ceremonies 
are  imposed  as  remedies  ;  therefore  they  are  the  only  phy- 
sicians. Astronomy,  of  which  astrology  forms  an  impor- 
tant portion,  is  also  revealed  in  their  Holy  Books ;  hence 
the  priests  are  relied  upon  to  make  astronomical  calcula- 
tions, and  ])redict  future  events  by  the  stars.  This  exclu- 
sive possession  of  such  knowledge  as  exists,  has,  of  course, 
])(.'cn  a  source  of  perpetual  emolument. 


HINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  21 

Every  Hindoo  priest  is  a  Bramin ;  but  all  the  Bra- 
mins  are  not  priests.  Those  who  expound  the  Sacred 
Books  take  precedence  of  other  Brainins.  The  highest 
order  of  this  powerful  hierarchy  are  called  Guroos.  At 
stated  seasons,  these  princely  Pontiffs  travel  through  their 
respective  districts,  to  examine  seminaries,  visit  inferior 
priests,  attend  great  festivals,  administer  })rescribed  rites  in 
tlie  temples,  or  perform  solemn  ceremonies  in  the  sacred 
groves.  Their  retinue  and  equipage  are  very  magnificent. 
Pioneers  precede  the  splendid  procession,  to  level  high 
places  in  the  roads,  and  fill  up  ravines.  The  lower  castes 
retire  to  a  distance  while  they  pass  by,  lest  their  shadows 
should  happen  to  touch  them,  or  the  consecrated  air  be 
polluted  by  inferior  breath.  The  most  sanctified  among 
these  priests  are  not  only  venerated,  but  absolutely  wor- 
shipped with  low  prostration,  when  they  appear  in  public. 
Some  of  them  are  believed  to  be  incarnated  deities.  The 
rajahs,  or  princes,  belong  to  the  warrior  caste ;  but  they 
are^  restrained  and  regulated  by  the  High  Priests,  whom 
they  treat  with  profoundest  reverence.  Princes  who  be- 
come holy  devotees  acquire  spiritual  rank  in  addition  to 
their  hereditary  dignity ;  but  even  under  such  circum- 
stances, they  are  bound  to  treat  Bramins  with  deferential 
huinilit}'.  It  is  deemed  an  act  of  the  highest  piety  to  de- 
fend the  priesthood  from  any  danger,  to  bestow  alms  upon 
them,  or  make  them  heirs  of  worldly  wealth.  They  are 
exempted  fi'om  taxes  and  from  corporeal  punishment.  To 
kill  a  Bramin  intentionally  is  an  inexpiable  crime,  and 
even  to  kill  one  b}^  accident  requires  to  be  atoned  for  by 
tiu'i'ible  penances.  The  funeral  pile  for  them  must  be 
lighted,  as  it  is  for  the  holiest  sacrifices,  with  fire  obtained 
by  the  friction  of  wood  from  the  sacred  groves.  The  ob- 
sequies must  be  solemnized  with  sacrifices  to  the  Sun  and 
the  Planets,  consisting  of  a  ram,  or  a  he-goat,  without  ble- 
mish. These  ceremonies  must  be  performed  in  a  place 
previously  consecrated  by  prayer,  and  sprinkled  with  holy 
water. 

Soodras,  and  the  castes  below  them,  are  expressly  for- 


22  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

bidden  to  devote  themselves  to  a  life  of  religious  contem- 
plation, to  read  the  Sacred  Books,  or  hear  them  read.  The 
inequality  of  laws  resulting  from  these  lines  of  demarcation 
in  society  may  be  easily  conjectured.  If  a  Bramin  kill 
one  of  his  own  caste,  it  is  ordained  that  he  perform  severe 
penances  in  the  forest  during  twelve  years.  If  a  Cshatriya 
involuntarily  kills  a  Bramin,  his  term  of  penance  is 
twenty-four  years ;  if  a  Vaisya  does  the  same,  it  is  thirt}''- 
six  years ;  if  a  Soodra,  it  is  forty-eight  years. 

The  education  of  a  Bramin,  if  conducted  with  strict- 
ness, is  somewhat  arduous.  In  his  youth,  he  is  bound  to 
be  scrupulously  chaste,  to  learn  Sanscrit,  study  tbe  Sacred 
Books,  which  are  very  voluminous,  and  treat  his  spiritual 
teachers  with  the  most  implicit  obedience,  however  severe 
their  requirements  ma}^  be.  In  manhood,  it  is  his  duty  to 
marry  and  rear  up  children  to  succeed  him  in  his  holy 
office.  As  he  may  contract  pollution  by  the  approach  of  a 
foreigner,  or  coming  near  any  dead  body,  or  touching  any 
vessel  or  garment  that  has  been  used  by  one  of  inferior 
caste,  or  having  an  insect  get  crushed  in  the  folds  of  his 
priestly  robes,  it  is  necessary  to  spend  a  great  deal  of  time 
in  performing  ablutions  and  ceremonies  of  purification, 
lie  is  forbidden  to  cause  the  death  of  any  creature  except 
for  sacrifice,  and  therefore  eats  no  flesh  except  that  of 
victims.  Wine  and  strong  drinks  are  forbidden.  He  is 
required  to  be  strictly  virtuous,  modest  in  conversation 
and  manners,  benevolent  in  his  social  relations,  and  faith- 
ful in  the  discharge  of  religious  functions.  If  a  Bramin 
has  obeyed  these  rules,  he  may,  if  he  chooses,  transfer  the 
duties  of  his  sacerdotal  office,  and  retire  into  the  forest,  to 
devote  himself  to  a  life  of  spiritual  contemplation.  If  he 
intends  to  do  this,  he  makes  a  feast  for  friends  and  rela- 
tives, and  bestows  farewell  presents  on  them.  The  priests 
perform  a  great  variety  of  ceremonies  and  recite  prayers. 
lie  lays  down  tiie  trij)le  cord,  which  he  has  always  worn 
as  the  external  sign  of  his  superior  caste,  assumes  the  her- 
mit's coarse  garment  of  woven  bark,  and  bids  adieu  to  the 
world.     If  his  wife  and  children  choose  to  accompany  him, 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  28 

in  order  to  render  his  solitary  life  more  comfortable  by 
their  attentions,  it  is  considered  a  mark  of  great  devotion 
on  their  part.  But  whether  his  fomily  are  with  him  or 
not,  the  hermit  must  live  perfectly  chaste,  and  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  religious  meditation  and  sacrifices.  If,  after 
years  of  fasting,  mortification,  and  prayer,  he  should  break 
his  vow  of  chastity,  he  loses  all  the  fruit  of  his  past  labours. 
If  he  aims  at  being  one  of  the  highest  order  of  saints,  lie 
must  become  still  more  ascetic.  lie  must  renounce  his 
family,  give  up  every  species  of  property,  sleep  on  the 
ground,  and  annihilate  his  body  by  such  self-torments  as 
ingenuity  can  devise.  By  this  process  he  may  finally  at- 
tain absorption  into  The  Divine  Soul,  which  is  the  great 
object  of  devotional  efforts  among  the  Hindoos.  They 
describe  it  as  by  no  means  a  state  of  deadness,  but  as 
peaceful,  free,  and  happy ;  sei'enely  independent  of  all  the 
Avorld  can  give  or  take  away ;  a  state  of  unchangeable 
beatitude,  which  can  only  be  understood  by  those  who 
have  experienced  it.  Arrived  at  this  stage  in  the  spiritual 
pilgrimage,  there  is  no  more  need  to  offer  sacrifices  or 
study  the  Vedas.  Truth  constantly  reveals  itself  by  its 
own  inward  light,  and  the  divine  fire  continually  burning 
within  the  soul  is  sufficient  worship. 

This  complete  abstraction  of  the  soul  from  the  body,  by 
solitude,  pi'olonged  fasts,  and  physical  torture,  may  well  be 
supposed  to  occasion  strange  states  of  nervous  irritability 
and  exaltation;  but  the  promised  bliss,  the  miraculous 
power,  and  the  saintly  renown,  are  so  much  coveted,  that 
devotees  usually  endure  their  sufferings  with  great  courage 
and  perseverance.  One  of  them  told  the  Abbe  Dubois: 
"Every  day  mj-  spiritual  master  obliged  me  to  gaze  fix- 
edly at  the  firmament,  without  changing  my  posture  or 
winking  my  eyes.  This  gave  me  a  terrible  headache.  I 
thought  I  saw  sparkles  of  fire,  flaming  globes,  and  other 
meteors.  My  teacher  had  himself  become  blind  of  one  eye 
by  these  exercises." 

Another  said:  "I  was  ordered  to  keep  awake  most  of 
the  night,  striving  not  to  think  of  any  thing  at  all.     I  was 


24  PROGEESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

instructed  to  hold  my  breath  as  long  as  nature  could 
possibly  endure  it.  Once  at  midday,  I  found  myself  sur- 
rounded by  thick  darkness  ;  at  another  time,  I  saw  a  very 
clear  moon  that  appeared  to  move.  My  master  con- 
gratulated me  upon  my  progress,  and  prescribed  more 
painful  exertions.  But  I  became  fatigued,  and  returned 
to  my  former  mode  of  life." 

One  of  those  hermit-schools  in  the  forest,  where  pilgrims 
resorted,  and  saints  served  their  noviciate,  is  thus  described 
in  the  ancient  poem  Mahabharata,  believed  to  have  been 
written  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  Christ : — "  The 
king  advanced  toward  the  sacred  grove,  image  of  celestial 
regions.  The  river  was  filled  with  pilgrims,  while  the  air 
resounded  with  voices  of  pious*  men  repeating  portions 
of  the  sacred  writings.  Followed  by  his  minister  of  state 
and  his  grand  priest,  he  advanced  toward  the  hermitage, 
animated  with  desire  to  see  the  holy  man,  inexhaustible 
treasure  of  religious  knowledge.  He  heard  mysterious 
sentences,  extracts  from  the  Vedas,  pronounced  with  rhyth- 
mical cadence  by  priests  most  learned  in  sacred  maxims 
and  religious  ceremonies.  This  place  was  radiant  with 
glory  from  the  presence  of  a  certain  number  of  Bramins 
skilful  in  the  preparation  of  sacrifices;  while  others  of  ex- 
emplary life  chanted  portions  of  the  Vedas.  All  were  men 
of  cultivated  intelligence  and  imposing  exterior ;  men 
"who  possessed  the  principles  of  morality,  and  the  science 
of  the  cultivation  of  the  soul ;  men  skilful  to  reconcile 
sacred  texts,  which  do  not  agree  together;  men  versed  in 
grammar,  poetry,  logic,  and  chronology ;  men  who  un- 
derstood causes  and  effi!cts,  who  had  penetrated  the  essence 
of  matter,  of  movement,  and  of  quality ;  who  had  studied 
the  language  of  birds  and  bees  [for  omens]  ;  who  reposed 
their  faith  upon  the  works  of  Vyasa,  and  offered  models  of 
study  from  books  of  sacred  origin.  These  places  resemble 
the  dwelling  of  Brahma." 

The  most  ancient  writings  of  the  Hindoos  teach  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  its  transmigration  through 
various  forms  of  being.     Man  is  taught  to  consider    the 


niNDOSTAN,    OR   IXDIA.  25 

numerous  evils  which  afflict  him  in  this  life  as  the  in- 
evitable consequences  of  sins  committed,  either  in  his 
present  form  of  existence,  or  in  some  previous  state.  lie 
was  sent  into  the  world  again  to  expiate  them  by  penances 
and  good  works.  The  duties  of  his  caste  are  a  portion  of 
his  penance,  and  if  he  performs  them  faithfully,  he  will 
have  a  certain  degree  of  reward  thereunto  belonging.  If 
he  accomplishes  meritorious  works  in  addition  to  these,  his 
account  will  stand  still  more  favourably,  and  when  he  is 
born  into  the  world  again,  it  may  be  into  a  higher  caste. 
If  he  commits  sins,  instead  of  performing  duties,  he  must 
make  haste  to  expiate  them  by  painful  penances  here,  lest 
he  receive  the  appropriate  punishment  in  hell,  and  when 
that  is  finished,  his  soul  be  sent  back  to  earth,  to  dwell  in  a 
lower  caste  or  a  barbarian  nation,  perhaps  even  in  the 
form  of  a  woman  or  an  animal.  The  highest  Bramin 
may  gradually  sink  himself  lower  and  lower,  by  sins  and 
neglect  of  duty,  until  he  is  condemned  to  reappear  in  the 
world  as  a  Pariah,  or  a  reptile.  But  the  desired  good  can 
be  attained  sooner  or  later  by  all,  though  it  may  be 
through  manifold  progressive  changes.  If  the  Soodra  per- 
forms faithfully  the  duties  of  his  station,  he  may  return  to 
earth  as  a  Vaisya.  If  he  fulfil  this  mission  conscientiously, 
and  adds  meritorious  works  according  to  his  knowledge, 
his  soul  may  enjoy  Paradise  for  a  season,  and  when  the 
recompense  is  completed,  he  may  perhaps  be  born  into  the 
favoured  caste  of  Bramins,  bringing  with  him  the  ac- 
cumulated wisdom  and  goodness  acquired  by  his  past  ex- 
periences on  earth  or  in  Paradise.  The  Soodra,  thus 
elevated  to  a  Bramin,  may  finally,  by  annihilating  his 
senses,  and  devoting  himself  entirely  to  religious  con- 
templation, attain  to  complete  absorption  into  the  Universal 
Soul,  and  enjoy  immortal  beatitude,  without  any  further 
necessity  of  submitting  to  birth  or  death. 

One  of  their  sacred  poems  represents  the  Supreme  Being 

as  saying  :  "  Those  who  seek  refuge  near  me  shall  not  perish. 

Tiiough  they  be  born  of  ignoble  parents,  though  they  be 

women,  or  Vaisyas,  or  Soodras,  they  are  upon  the  road  to 

Vol.  I.— 3"  B 


26  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

supreme  felicity  ;  much  more  the  pure  Bramins  and  pious 
royal  sages." 

They  believe  that  every  man  is  accompanied  from  birth 
to  death  by  two  attendant  Spirits,  one  of  whom  keeps  re- 
cord of  his  good  actions,  the  other  of  his  sins.  That  within 
the  external  mortal  body  is  a  subtile  invisible  body,  the 
seat  of  the  spiritual  faculties,  the  mediator  between  the 
soul  and  the  senses.  At  death,  this  interior  body  is  not 
laid  aside  with  the  material  form.  It  accompanies  the 
human  soul  through  all  its  transmigrations,  until  the  soul 
is  finally  absorbed  into  the  Supreme  Being,  from  whom  it 
emanated.  This  invisible  interior  body,  after  successive 
sojourns  on  earth,  in  paradise,  or  hell,  for  ages,  is  finally 
cast   off  by  the   soul's  complete  absorption   into  Brahm. 

Then  the  spiritual  body  returns  to  be  again  born  on 
earth,  and  the  organization  of  the  external  body  it  takes 
depends  on  the  character  of  the  soul  it  had  previously  ac- 
companied. It  is  a  common  assertion  among  Hindoos  that 
"Brahma  inscribes  the  destiny  of  every  mortal  on  his  scull, 
and  the  gods  themselves  cannot  avert  it." 

However,  man  is  not  entirely  a  passive  machine  in  the 
hands  of  fate.  Various  spiritual  influences  act  upon  him 
while  he  is  in  the  body.  Some  will  lead  him  into  the 
illusions  of  the  passions,  some  into  the  shadows  of  ig- 
norance and  lethargy,  and  some  to  the  calm  regions  of 
truth  and  virtue.  By  resolute  efforts,  they  say,  man  can 
turn  away  from  the  shadows  and  illusions,  and  follow  the 
real  and  unchangeable. 

The  Sacred  Books  describe  fourteen  spheres,  the  abodes 
of  souls,  many  of  whom  have  fallen  from  their  original 
glory,  and  are  returning  to  their  primeval  home,  more  or 
less  slowly,  through  manifold  transmigrations.  This  earth 
is  one  of  the  scenes  of  expiation  and  progn^ss.  It  has  six 
spheres  above  it,  successive  gradations  of  Paradise,  and 
seven  spheres  below  it,  successive  gradations  of  punishment, 
for  purposes  of  purification.  These  abodes  arc  dreary  and 
dark,  each  more  horrible  tlian  the  other.  In  some,  the 
ground  is  composed  of  deep  mud,  in  others  it  is  made  of 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  27 

hot  copper,  or  planted  thick  with  thorns,  or  crowded  with 
venomous  reptiles,  such  as  serpents  and  vipers.  The  cruel 
are  to  be  tormented  by  snakes ;  drunkards  thrown  into 
baths  of  liquid  lire  ;  seducers  embraced  by  images  of  red-hot 
iron  ;  the  inhospitable  are  to  have  their  eyes  torn  out  by  vul- 
tures; and  despisers  of  Bramins  are  to  stick  fast  in  filthy  mire 
with  their  heads  downward.  The  seventh  and  deeptot  pit 
is  of  red-hot  charcoal.  Evil  Spirits  come  up  thence  to  re- 
ceive the  souls  of  wicked  men.  When  souls  come  into 
the  presence  of  Yama,  Judge  of  the  Dead,  two  attendants 
place  before  him  the  records  of  their  lives;  one  of  which 
enumerates  their  good  deeds,  the  other  their  sins.  If  wicked 
thoughts  and  actions  predominate,  Yama  delivers  the  trem- 
bling souls  to  Evil  Spirits  with  orders  to  scourge  them,  or 
drag  them  over  rocky  paths,  or  expose  them  to  be  torn  by 
awful  beasts,  or  gnawed  by  fiery  worms,  or  plunged  into 
pits  of  flame.  These  abodes  of  suffering  are  always  de- 
scribed as  situated  in  the  South,  and  the  blessed  regions  in 
the  North. 

The  first  sphere  above  this  earth  is  the  Paradise  of 
Indra,  appropriated  to  those  who  have  been  charitable  to 
the  poor  and  zealous  in  the  performance  of  religious  cere- 
monies. Above  this,  are  successive  ascending  spheres,  for 
men  of  greater  and  greater  degrees  of  holiness.  Those 
who  have  died  martyrs  for  religion,  or  performed  very  ex- 
traordinary acts  of  piety,  inhabit  the  Paradise  of  Vishnu, 
in  the  fifth  sphere.  The  sixth  and  highest  is  the  Paradise 
of  Brahma,  reserved  for  men  who  never  uttered  a  falsehood, 
and  for  women  who  burn  themselves  on  the  funeral  pile 
of  their  husbands,  a  voluntary  self-sacrifice,  to  expiate  the 
sins  of  the  deceased. 

Indra's  Paradise  is  more  frequently  described  than  the 
higher  ones,  perhaps  because  it  is  more  generally  hoped  for, 
being  attained  by  the  easiest  process.  Ilis  resplendent  pal- 
ace, called  Vaijayanta,  is  in  the  midst  of  blooming  gardens, 
where  grows  the  celestial  fruit  Amrita,  which  confers  im- 
mortality on  whoever  tastes  it.  Ever-playing  fountains 
preserve  perpetual  verdure.     There  is  Camada,  the  cow  of 


28  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

abundance,  the  sacred  horse  Sajam,  and  the  white  elephant 
Airavata.  Indra  and  his  wife  are  seated  on  a  throne  of 
gold,  blazing  with  gems.  They  are  surrounded  by  Spirits 
of  Singing  Stars,  called  Gandharvas,  and  by  the  Genii  of 
Musical  Instruments,  called  Ginarers,  who  make  celestial 
harmony  with  the  voices  of  dancing  nymphs,  called  Aspa- 
ras;  and  as  they  sing,  the  air  is  perfumed  with  their  fra- 
grant breath.  They  mingle  together  in  dances,  and  delight 
the  eye  with  graceful  evolutions. 

Kalaisa,  the  palace  of  Siva,  is  on  a  silver  mountain  above 
the  lofty  peaks  of  Himalaya.  "  It  is  surrounded  by  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  trees,  which  yield  delicious  fruit  all  the 
year  round.  Roses  and  other  flowers  fill  the  air  with  fra- 
grance. The  lake  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  enclosed 
with  pleasant  groves  of  umbrageous  trees.  Peacocks  and 
beautiful  women  delight  the  eye,  and  birds  charm  the  ear 
with  multifarious  melody.  The  surrounding  woods  are 
filled  with  saints,  who  spend  their  time  in  contemplation 
and  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  They  are  fiiir  to  look  upon, 
with  long  white  beards  and  graceful  drapery.  Round 
about  the  mountain  are  seven  ladders,  by  which  you  ascend 
to  a  spacious  plain,  over  which  hangs  a  silver  bell,  self-sus- 
tained in  the  air,  and  a  table  too  brilliant  for  mortal  sight, 
with  nine  precious  stones  of  various  colours.  Upon  this 
table  lies  a  silver  rose,  which  contains  two  women,  bright 
and  fair  as  pearls.  In  the  centre  of  the  rose  is  the  Sacred 
Triangle,  that  mysterious  emblem,  of  which  no  mortal 
tongue  may  declare  the  significance." 

The  Mahabharata  describes  the  Paradise  of  Vishnu  as 
"eighty  thousand  miles  in  circumference,  and  formed  of 
pure  gold.  The  pillars  of  his  palace,  Vaicuntha,  are  entire 
gems;  its  architraves  and  pediments  blaze  with  jewels. 
On  a  throne,  radiant  as  the  meridian  sun,  sits  Vishnu,  with 
his  wife  Lacshmi,  reposing  on  lotus-blossoms.  The  god- 
dess shines  like  a  continued  blaze  of  lightning,  and  hei 
beautiful  form  exhales  a  fragrance  which  is  dill'used  through 
Paradise.  Lovely  lakes  surround  the  palace,  and  on  their 
surface  float  myriads  of  red,  blue,  and  white  water-lilies, 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  29 

The  praises  of  Bralirna  are  continually  chanted  by  beau- 
tiful spirits,  and  the  gods  sometimes  unite  their  voices  with 
the  worshippers.     Garuda,  the  eagle  god,  guards  the  door." 

The  Hindoos,  endowed  by  nature  with  keen  susceptibil- 
ity to  pleasure,  are  eager  to  arrive  at  these  paradisaical  re- 
gions, where  life  is  not  for  penance,  and  enjoyment  is  no 
sin.  To  obtain  the  promised  rewards,  they  go  through  an 
immense  number  of  religious  ceremonies  and  severe  pen- 
ances. Almost  every  event  of  human  life,  and  every 
portion  of  the  day,  has  some  prescribed  prayer  or  sacrifice. 
They  attribute  an  inherent  value  to  acts  of  devotion,  en- 
tirely independent  of  the  spiritual  state  of  those  who  per- 
form them.  If  not  accomplished  exactly  according  to 
prescription,  the  desired  effects  will  not  follow.  Even  if 
this  happen  by  some  unavoidable  accident,  the  reward  will 
be  lost,  whatever  might  have  been  the  purity  of  intention. 
But  if  the  ceremony  be  performed  strictly  according  to  rule 
in  every  particular,  the  gods  are  unable  to  prevent  the 
recompense  thereunto  belonging,  however  wicked  the  pe- 
titioner may  be,  or  however  bad  his  purpose  in  the  power 
he  wishes  to  acquire.  An  eternal  necessity  binds  every 
act  to  its  effect,  which  must  manifest  itself  sooner  or  later. 
Their  Sacred  Books  declare:  "If  fire  is  touched  without 
thinking  of  fire,  it  burns  him  who  touches  it;  j^oison  will 
kill,  though  taken  by  accident ;  thus  the  name  of  God  con- 
tains in  itself  essentially  the  virtue  to  consume  sins."  But 
each  effort  has  its  limited  consequences,  and  can  receive 
no  more  than  belongs  to  it.  When  two  giants  asked 
Brahma  for  immortality,  as  a  reward  for  terrible  self-inflic- 
tions, he  replied:  "  Your  object  in  undertaking  these  peni- 
tential enterprises  was  to  rule  over  three  worlds.  You 
have  secured  that  object;  but  immortality  cannot  be  granted 
you." 

The  three  attributes  of  Brahm,  called  Brahma,  Yishnu, 
and  Siva,  are  indicated  by  letters  corresponding  to  our  A.  U. 
M.,  generally  pronounced  Om.  This  mystic  Word  is  never 
uttered  except  in  prayer,  and  the  sign  Avhich  represents  it 
in  their  temples  is  an  object  of  profound  adoration.  Their 
Vol.  I.— 3* 


30  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Sacred  Books  declare  it  to  be  the  first  Word  uttered  by 
Brahma,  and  call  it  "  the  first-born  of  the  Creator,"  "Like 
the  pure  ether,  it  encloses  in  itself  all  the  qualities,  all  the 
elements  of  Brahma.  It  is  the  name  and  the  body  of 
Brahma.  It  is  consequently  infinite,  like  him,  and  is  the 
Creator  and  Euler  of  all  things."  "  Brahma,  meditating 
upon  this  Divine  Word,  found  therein  primitive  water." 
"  All  ordained  rites,  such  as  oblation  to  fire,  and  solemn 
offerings,  pass  away ;  but  A.  U.  M.  passes  not  away ;  since 
it  is  a  symbol  of  the  Most  High,  the  Lord  of  all  created 
things."  In  the  Sacred  Books  called  Vedas,  The  V/ord 
utters  a  soliloquy,  in  which  he  praises  himself  as  "  the 
Universal  Soul." 

There  is  likewise  a  prayer  in  the  Yedas,  called  Gaya- 
tree,  which  consists  of  three  measured  lines,  and  is  consid- 
ered the  holiest  and  most  efiicacious  of  all  their  religious 
forms.  Sir  William  Jones  translates  it  thus:  "Let  us 
adore  the  supremacy  of  that  Spiritual  Sun,  the  godhead, 
who  illuminates  all,  who  re-creates  all,  from  whom  all  pro- 
ceed, to  whom  all  must  return ;  whom  we  invoke  to  direct 
our  undertakings  aright  in  our  progress  toward  his  holy 
seat."  lie  gives  the  following  paraphrase  as  expressive 
of  the  meaning  it  conveys  to  a  devout'  Hindoo :  "  What 
the  sun  and  light  are  to  this  visible  world,  the  Supreme 
good  and  truth  are  to  the  intellectual  and  invisible  universe; 
and  as  our  corporeal  eyes  have  a  distinct  perception  of  ob- 
jects enlightened  by  the  sun,  thus  our  souls  acquire  certain 
knowledge,  by  meditating  on  the  light  of  truth^  which  em- 
anates from  the  Being  of  beings.  That  is  the  light,  by 
which  alone  our  minds  can  be  directed  in  the  path  of  beat- 
itude." One  of  the  celebrated  Hindoo  saints  thus  expounds 
the  Gayatree :  "  We  meditate  on  the  Supreme,  Omnipre- 
sent, Internal  Spirit  of  this  splendid  sun,  who  is  earnestly 
sought  for  by  such  as  dread  further  mortal  birth ;  who  re- 
sidea  in  every  body,  as  the  all-pervading  soul  and  con- 
troller of  the  mind,  and  constantly  directs  our  intellect 
toward  the  accpiisition  of  virtue,  wealth,  physical  enjoy- 
ment, and  final  beatitude." 


HINDOSTAN,   OR  INDIA.  31 

This  prayer  should  be  pronounced  with  Oni  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  Om  at  the  end.  If  omitted  at  the  beginning, 
the  desired  reward  will  fail;  if  at  the  end,  the  reward  will 
be  of  short  duration.  Their  eonunentators  affirm  that 
"  whoever  repeats  these  once,  or  ten  times,  or  a  hundred 
times,  shall  obtain  bliss  in  a  proportionate  degree.  After 
the  repetition  let  him  meditate  on  him  who  is  One  only, 
and  all-pervading  ;  thereby  all  religious  observances, 
though  not  performed,  shall  have  been  virtually  per- 
formed." According  to  their  Sacred  Books,  "whoever 
repeats  them  every  da}^  for  three  years,  without  negligence, 
shall  approach  the  Most  High  God,  become  free  as  air,  and. 
after  death  acquire  an  ethereal  essence."  Tliis  form  of 
worship  is  deemed  so  holy  that  it  shocks  a  Bramin  to  hear 
it  uttered  by  a  foreigner,  or  one  of  inferior  caste.  An 
English  gentleman,  who  had  learned  the  Gayatree  in  San- 
scrit, began  to  repeat  it,  unconscious  of  doing  harm,  in  the 
presence  of  a  pious  Bramin,  who,  with  terrified  aspect,  in- 
stantly stopped  his  ears,  and  hurried  from  the  room.  No 
people  in  the  world  manifest  greater  veneration  for  I'eli- 
gious  subjects  than  the  Hindoos.  A  learned  Bramin,  read- 
ing a  sacred  poem  to  Sir  William  Jones,  omitted  the  por- 
tions relating  to  Brahma,  because  it  was  deemed  profana- 
tion to  make  them  known  to  any  but  priests ;  and  so 
sincere  were  his  devout  feelings,  that  his  voice  was  often 
interrupted  by  tears. 

The  most  ancient  and  honoured  of  all  their  Sacred  Books 
are  the  Vedas;  a  name  signifying  Laws,  or  Ordinances, 
and  derived  from  a  root  meaning  Light,  Fire.  They  be- 
lieve them  to  have  existed  in  the  mind  of  Brahma  himself, 
before  the  creation,  and  that  the  first  man  received  them 
directly  from  his  mouth.  They  are  divided  into  four 
books,  called  the  Eig  Veda,  the  Yajur  Veda,  the  Sama 
Veda,  and  the  Atharva  Veda.  Portions  of  the  last  contain 
fewer  obsolete  terms  than  the  other  volumes,  and  are 
therefore  supposed  to  be  less  ancient.  Few,  even  of  the 
most  learned  Bramins,  can  read  all  passages  in  the  three 
oldest  Vedas.     Copies  of  the  original  manuscripts  are  now 


32  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

exceedingly  scarce.  Numerous  commentaries  have  been 
written  upon  them,  from  time  immemorial,  called  Shas- 
tras;  a  common  designation  for  all  their  Sacred  Writings. 

The  Vedas  are  written  in  Sanscrit,  which  means  The 
Perfect;  it  is  likewise  called  Deva  Nagara,  or  the  Divine 
Language.  Scholars  jDronounce  it  the  most  copious  and 
excellent  of  all  the  ancient  tongues ;  and  this  fact  is  a  plain 
indication  that  it  was  formed  by  a  people  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  civilization,  who  had  many  ideas  to  express. 
But  its  origin  extends  too  far  back  into  the  darkness  of 
antiquity  to  be  traced  by  history.  The  people  who  spoke 
it  passed  away  from  the  face  of  the  earth  such  a  very  long 
time  ago,  that  it  has  been  a  dead  language  beyond  the 
memory  or  the  records  of  man.  The  knowledge  of  it  was 
confined  to  learned  Bramins,  until  it  attracted  the  atten- 
tion and  employed  the  industry  of  European  scholars,  in 
the  last  century. 

The  Hindoos  believe  that  the  Vedas  are  as  old  as  the 
creation  of  the  world.  Learned  Bramins  profess  to  find 
traces  of  their  existence  as  far  back  as  two  hundred  and 
sixty  years  after  our  date  of  the  Deluge ;  that  is,  two  thou- 
sand and  eighty-eight  3'ears  before  the  Christian  era.  Sir 
William  Jones  says:  "  That  the  Vedas  were  actually  writ- 
ten before  the  Flood,  I  shall  never  believe;  but  they  arc 
very  ancient,  and  far  older  than  other  Sanscrit  composi- 
tions." He  thinks  the  Yajur  Veda  can  be  traced  as  far  as 
one  thousand  five  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ; 
that  is,  one  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Moses.  He 
arrived  at  this  conclusion  from  certain  astronomical  state- 
ments therein  contained.  The  learned  Heeren  says  : 
"  There  is  no  reliable  data  by  which  to  ascertain  the  pre- 
cise period,  either  when  the  separate  parts  were  written, 
or  when  they  were  arranged  in  their  present  order.  Their 
origin  is  involved  in  deepest  obscurity.  They  are  without 
doubt  the  (eldest  works  composed  in  Sanscrit.  This  is  suf- 
ficiently attested  by  the  obsolete  idiom  in  which  they  are 
written.  Another  proof  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  all 
the  Sanscrit  writings,  even  the  most  ancient,  allude  to  the 


HINDOSTAN,   OR   INDIA.  33 

Vedas  as  already  in  existence,  and  cite  numerous  passages 
from  them,  at  almost  every  page."  The  various  Hindoo 
sects  all  profess  to  find  authority  for  their  doctrines  in  these 
Sacred  Oracles ;  but  the  Vedas  themselves  give  no  indica- 
tions of  separation  into  sects.  They  do  not  even  allude  to 
the  great  sects  of  Siva,  and  of  the  two  incarnations  of 
Vishnu,  called  Eama  and  Crishna,  though  Hindoo  monu- 
ments prove  them  to  be  of  extreme  antiquity. 

The  manuscripts  of  the  Vedas  made  forty -two  volumes, 
folio.  On  account  of  their  great  bulk,  the  obsolete  expres- 
sions, and  the  metaphorical  obscurity  of  style,  they  were 
condensed  and  arranged  in  their  present  form,  by  a  learned 
Bramin.  This  collection  is  called  the  Vedanta,  or  Sub- 
stance of  the  Vedas,  and  is  generally  received  as  of  equal 
authority  with  the  original.  There  is  no  certain  evidence 
when  this  compilation  was  made :  but  Oriental  scholars 
agree  that  it  must  have  been  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago.  The  work  is  attributed  to  Vyasa,  which  is  a 
common  term  applied  to  all  compilers,  Heeren  says : — 
"  Vyasa  had  numerous  disciples,  who  instructed  others  in 
their  turn.  At  last,  the  variations  in  the  manner  of  read- 
ing and  reciting  the  text  are  said  to  have  given  rise  to  no 
less  than  one  thousand  one  hundred  different  schools. 
These  alterations  would,  for  the  most  part,  only  concern 
outward  forms  of  pronunciation  ;  and  they  must  have  been 
made  many  centuries  ago ;  for  the  numerous  quotations  in 
the  oldest  writings  agree  with  the  modern  copies  of  the 
Vedas." 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  reverence  paid  to  these  Sacred 
Writings.  It  is  not  allowable  to  bring  them  into  contact 
with  animal  substances,  such  as  leather  or  woollen.  He 
who  uses  them  must  first  perform  prescribed  ablutions  and 
other  religious  ceremonies.  It  is  deemed  sacrilege  to  read 
them  in  the  presence  of  a  wicked  man,  or  within  the  sound 
of  whipping,  or  in  a  place  through  which  a  corpse  is  car- 
ried. Bramins  alone  may  study  or  explain  them;  and 
they  have  always  had  it  in  their  power  to  communicate  to 
other  castes  as  much,  or  as  little,  as  they  pleased.      The 

B* 


31  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

next  caste,  comprising  princes  and  nobles,  arc  allowed  to 
hear  them  expounded,  and  even  to  read  portions,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Bramins.  The  third  caste,  of  mer- 
chants, who  are  generally  correct  grammarians,  and  often 
good  poets,  are  permitted  to  hear  only  such  parts  as  relate 
to  medicine.  The  lower  castes  are  rigorously  excluded 
from  all  knowledge  of  them.  The  Code  of  Menu  ordains : 
"If  a  Soodra  reads  the  Vedas  to  either  of  the  three  other 
castes,  or  if  he  listens  to  them,  heated  oil,  wax,  and  melted 
tin  shall  be  poured  into  his  ears,  and  the  orifice  stopped 
up  ;  and  if  he  learns  the  Vedas  by  heart,  he  shall  be  put 
to  death."  But  "  the  Bramin,  who  knows  all  the  Vedas 
by  heart,  and  recites  them  three  times  with  devotion,  will 
be  delivered  from  all  sin.  He  would  incur  no  punishment, 
though  he  had  eaten  food  from  the  most  unclean  hands, 
or  even  if  he  had  killed  the  inhabitants  of  three  worlds." 
Devout  men,  who  have  thus  read  and  recited  the  Vedas, 
are  called  "twice  born,"  in  allusion  to  a  new  spiritual  birth, 
in  addition  to  their  natural  birth. 

Inherent  sacredness  and  supernatural  power  are  ascribed 
to  the  identical  Sanscrit  words,  and  it  is  considered  sacri- 
lege to  make  the  slightest  alteration  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  sentences.  Ilence,  the  Bramins  have  evinced  an  al- 
most insurmountable  reluctance  to  have  them  translated 
into  foreign  la,nguages.  Probably  no  one  of  them  would 
have  dared  to  show  the  manuscripts  for  such  a  purpose, 
had  it  not  been  for  their  hopeless  conviction  that  every- 
thing is  going  to  predestined  destruction  in  this  present 
Call  Yug,  and  therefore  it  matters  little  what  is  done  with 
anything  this  perishable  world  contains.  But  though  this 
view  has  reconciled  some  to  imparting  a  knowledge  of 
their  religion  to  foreigners,  the  stricter  sort  have  always 
regarded .  translations  of  their  Sacred  Books  with  mingled 
feelings  of  terror  and  sadness. 

The  Vedas  arc  collections  of  detached  pieces,  by  differ- 
ent authors,  whose  names  arc  therein  cited.  They  purport 
to  be  the  utterance  of  certain  very  ancient  and  celebrated 
saints,  called  llishis,  who  received  them  directly  from  Di- 


HINDOSTAN,    Oil    IXDIA.  85 

vine  Beings.  Some  of  these  authors  were  Bramins,  and 
some  were  royal  personages,  who  had  attained  to  complete 
sanctity.  They  are  represented  as  holy  anchorites  in  the 
forest,  a  circumstance  which  indicates  the  extreme  antiquity 
of  that  mode  of  life  in  India.  Heeren  says  :  "The  worship 
prescribed  concerns  a  religious  system,  which,  according  to 
the  unanimous  opinion  of  all  who  have  studied  the  sub- 
ject, has  for  its  foundatiqn  the  belief  in  One  God.  This 
Divinity,  however,  was  manifested  in  the  grand  phenomena 
of  Nature,  which  were  themselves  separately  invoked  as 
deities.  In  this  sense,  we  might  consider  it  a  kind  of  nat- 
ural religion,  but  it  is  interwoven  with  a  tissue  of  refined 
speculations  on  the  infinite,  on  the  origin  of  things,  the 
emanation  of  beings,  and  their  absorption  into  the  God- 
head ;  and  this  constitutes  their  peculiarity."  The  names 
of  Vishnu  and  Siva  are  only  mentioned  two  or  three 
times;  but  the  "One  Immutable  Being"  is  mentioned 
much  more  frequently.  The  prayers  are  mostly  addressed 
to  Sun,  Moon,  Fire,  Air,  Water,  and  other  forces  of  Na- 
ture, wdiose  presiding  Spirits  are  supposed  to  be  subordi- 
nate agents  of  the  Supreme,  and  different  manifestations  of 
his  being.  The  Vedas  contain  civil  laws,  moral  precepts, 
treatises  on  medicine,  astronomy,  astrology,  and  divination, 
dialogues  concerning  God  and  the  soul,  and  a  prescribed 
ritual  for  external  worship.  Each  Veda  is  divided  into 
two  parts.  The  first  part,  called  the  Sanhita,  contains 
hymns,  prayers,  invocations,  rules  concerning  sacrifices  to 
be  offered  to  Spirits  of  the  Planets  iand  of  the  Elements,  and 
to  the  souls  of  departed  ancestors  ;  and  various  other  things 
connected  with  the  ceremonials  of  religion.  The  second  por- 
tion is  called  the  Upanishad,  which  signifies  The  Knowledge 
of  God,  or  the  Science  of  God.  These  portions  contain 
moral  precepts,  and  dialogues  between  the  Kishis  and  the 
Deities,  concerning  the  existence  of  God,  the  origin  and 
destiny  of  the  soul,  and  other  kindred  topics.  They  teach 
the  existence  of  One  Invisible  Being,  and  urge  subjugation 
of  the  senses,  and  devout  contemplation,  as  the  means  of 
obfeiining  from  above  intuitive  perceptions,  which  they  call 


S6  PKOGKESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

"science,"  by  whose  divine  agency  the  human  soul  i» 
brought  into  perfect  and  blessed  union  with  the  Supremd 
One. 

In  the  first  two  Vedas,  there  is  but  a  small  proportion 
of  this  spiritual  teaching.  The  third  comprises  the  most 
detailed  and  abstract  researches  of  that  description ;  and 
even  in  the  fourth,  which  is  not  so  highly  esteemed  by 
European  scholars,  they  occupy  more  than  half  the  whole 
book.  The  Sanhita,  or  Liturgy,  of  the  first  and  second 
Vedas,  contains  hymns  and  prayers  to  be  recited  at  sacri- 
fices, festivals,  the  consecration  of  Bramins,  the  inaugura- 
tion of  kings,  and  other  public  ceremonies.  Some  of  them 
are  said  to  be  composed  by  the  ancient  Eishis,  others  are 
ascribed  to  various  Deities.  The  hymns  of  the  third  Veda 
are  exclusively  intended  for  chanting.  The  fourth  con- 
tains more  than  seven  hundred  and  sixty  hymns  and 
prayers.  A  large  proportion  are  forms  of  imprecation,  for 
the  punishment  of  the  wicked  and  the  destruction  of  ene- 
mies. There  are  also  numerous  invocations  to  the  Spirit 
of  the  Sun,  of  the  Air,  of  Water,  and  of  other  forces  of 
Nature,  to  procure  rain  and  good  harvests,  or  to  avert 
sickness  and  calamity. 

The  following  extracts  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of 
the  more  spiritual  portions  of  the  Vedas.  Where  the  word 
science  occurs,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  writers  in- 
tended thereby  to  express  percej^tions  of  divine  truth,  ob- 
tained by  immediate  revelations  from  God  to  the  soul. 

"  Any  place  where  the  mind  of  man  can  be  undisturbed, 
is  suitable  for  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being," 

"The  vulgar  look  for  their  gods  in  water;  the  ignorant 
think  they  reside  in  wood,  bricks,  and  stones  ;  men  of  more 
extended  knowledge  seek  them  in  celestial  orbs ;  but  wise 
men  worship  the  Universal  Soul." 

"There  is  One  living  and  true  God;  everlasting,  with- 
out parts  or  passion  ;  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness; the  Maker  and  Preserver  of  all  things." 

"  What  and  how  the  Supreme  Being  is,  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained.    We  can  only  describe  him    by  his   effects   and 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  37 

works.  Ill  like  manner  as  wc,  not  knowing  the  real  nature 
of  tlie  sun,  explain  him  to  be  the  cause  of  the  succession 
•  of  days  and  epochs." 

"  That  Spirit,  who  is  distinct  from  Matter,  and  from  all 
beings  contained  in  Matter,  is  not  various.  He  is  One, 
and  he  is  beyond,  description  ;  whose  glory  is  so  great, 
there  can  be  no  image  of  him.  He  is  the  incomprehensible 
Spirit,  who  illuminates  all,  and  delights  all;  from  whom 
all  proceed,  by  whom  they  live  after  they  are  born,  and  to 
whom  all  must  return.  Nothing  but  the  Suj^reme  Being 
should  be  adored  by  a  wise  man." 

"He  overspreads  all  creatures.  He  is  merely  Spirit, 
without  the  form  either  of  a  minute  body,  or  an  extended 
one,  which  is  liable  to  impression  or  organization.  He  is 
the  ruler  of  the  intellect,  self-existent,  pure,  perfect,  omni- 
scient, and  omnipresent.  He  has  from  all  eternity  been 
assigning  to  all  creatures  their  respective  purposes.  No 
vision  can  approach  him,  no  language  describe  him,  no  in- 
tellectual power  can  comprehend  him." 

"  Heaven  is  his  head,  the  sun  and  moon  are  his  eyes,  the 
earth  is  his  feet,  space  is  his  ears,  air  is  his  breath,  the  Ye- 
das  are  his  speech,  and  the  visible  creation  is  his  intellect; 
for  he  is  The  Soul  of  the  Universe." 

"He  by  whom  the  birth,  the  existence,  and  the  annihi- 
lation of  the  world  are  regulated  is  The  Supreme  Soul. 
The  sun  and  all  the  luminaries  borrow  their  light  from  him." 

"As  a  thousand  riiys  emanate  from  one  flame,  thus  do 
all  souls  emanate  from  The  One  Eternal  Soul,  and  return 
to  him," 

"  As  the  web  proceeds  from  the  spider  and  is  absorbed 
again  by  her,  as  vegetables  proceed  from  the  earth,  as  hair 
and  nails  grow  from  animate  beings,  so  is  the  universe 
evolved  from  the  One  Eternal  Supreme  Soul." 

"  The  Supreme  Soul  dwells  in  the  form  of  four-footed 
animals,  and  in  another  place  he  is  full  of  glory.  He  lives 
in  the  form  of  the  slave,  he  is  smaller  than  the  grain  of 
barley.  He  is  the  smallest  of  the  small,  and  the  greatest 
of  the  great ;  yet  he  is  neither  small  nor  great." 
Vol.  I.— 4 


88  PROGliESS   OF   KELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

"  Without  hand  or  foot,  he  runs  rapidly,  and  grasps 
firmly;  without  eyes,  he  sees  all;  without  ears,  he  hears 
all.  He  knows  whatever  can  be  known ;  but  there  is 
none  who  knows  him.  The  wise  call  hira  the  Great,  Su- 
preme, Pervading  Spirit." 

"From  him  emanates  the  firmament,  illustrated  by  the 
sun  and  moon  ;  the  moon  accumulates  clouds  in  the  sky ; 
the  clouds  descend  in  rain,  which  brings  forth  vegetables 
from  the  earth;  the  essence  derived  from  the  nourishment 
of  these  vegetables,  man  imparts  to  woman ;  through  these 
progressive  physical  causes,  numerous  offspring  proceed 
from  the  omnipresent  Supreme  Soul." 

"  He  who  considers  all  beings  as  existing  in  the  Supreme 
Spirit,  and  the  Supreme  Spirit  as  pervading  all  beings, 
cannot  view  with  contempt  any  creature  whatsoever," 

"  God  has  created  the  senses  to  be  directed  toward  ex- 
ternal objects.  They  can  perceive  only  these  objects,  and 
not  the  Eternal  Spirit.  The  sage,  who  desires  an  immor- 
tal life,  withdraws  his  senses  from  their  natural  course,  and 
perceives  the  Supreme  Being  everywhere  present." 

"  This  body  formed  of  bones,  skin,  and  nerves,  filled 
with  fat  and  flesh,  is  a  great  evil,  and  without  reality.  It 
ought  to  perish.  Of  what  use  then  is  it  for  the  soul  to  seek 
corporeal  pleasures?" 

"  The  inhabitants  of  this  body  are  cupidity,  anger,  de- 
sire for  wealth,  error,  anxiety,  envy,  sadness,  discord,  dis- 
ajipointment,  aflQiction,  hunger,  thirst,  disease,  old  age,  death. 
Of  what  use  is  it  then  to  seek  the  pleasures  of  this  body?" 

"  Through  strict  veracity,  uniform  control  of  mind  and 
senses,  abstinence  from  sexual  indulgence,  and  ideas  de- 
rived from  spiritual  teachers,  man  should  approach  God, 
who,  full  of  glory  and  perfection,  works  in  the  heart,  and 
to  whom  only  votaries  freed  from  passion  and  desire  can 
a])proximate." 

"  Material  objects  have  no  duration.  As  the  fruits  of 
the  trees  grow  and  perish,  so  do  these  objects.  What  is 
there  in  them  worthy  to  be  acquired?  Great  things  and 
small,  commanders  of  powerful  armies,  kings  who  govern 


HINDOSTAN",    OR   INDIA.  39 

the  earth,  have  relinquished  their  riches  and  passed  into 
the  other  world.  Nothing  could  save  them.  They  were 
men,  and  they  could  not  escape  death.  The  Gandharvas, 
the  Sooras,  the  stars  themselves,  do  not  endure  forever. 
The  seas  will  one  day  be  dried  up,  the  high  mountains 
will  fall,  even  the  polar  star  will  change  its  place,  the  earth 
will  be  swallowed  in  the  waves.  Such  is  the  world !  Of 
what  avail  is  it  to  seek  its  pleasures?  One  may  perform 
meritorious  works,  from  self-interested  motives,  during  his 
whole  life,  he  may  enjoy  all  pleasures,  still  he  must  come 
back  into  the  world.  lie  can  only  continue  passing  from 
one  world  to  another.  There  is  nothing  desirable,  except 
the  science  of  God.  Out  of  this,  there  is  no  tranquillity 
and  no  freedom.  To  be  attached  to  material  things  is  to 
be  chained ;  to  be  without  attachment  is  to  be  free." 

"  May  this  soul  of  mine,  which  is  a  ray  of  perfect  wis- 
dom, pure  intellect,  and  permanent  existence,  which  is  the 
unextinguishable  light  fixed  within  created  bodies,  without 
which  no  good  act  is  performed,  be  united  by  devout  medi- 
tation with  the  Spirit  supremely  blest  and  supremely  in- 
telligent." 

"0  thou,  who  givest  sustenance  to  the  world,  unveil 
that  face  of  the  true  sun,  which  is  now  hidden  by  a  veil  of 
golden  light!  so  that  we  may  see  the  truth^  and  know  our 
whole  duty." 

"  He  wlio  inwardly  rules  the  sun  is  the  same  immortal 
Spirit  wiio  inwardly  rules  thee." 

"That  All-pervading  Spirit,  which  gives  light  to  the 
visible  sun,  even  the  same  in  kind  am  I,  though  infinitely 
distant  in  degree.  Let  my  soul  return  to  the  immortal 
Spirit  of  God,  and  then  let  my  body  return  to  dust." 

"I  am  in  this  world  like  a  frog  in  a  dry  well.  Thou 
only,  0  Lord,  art  my  refuge ;  Thou  only  art  my  refuge." 

"  By  one  Supreme  Ruler  is  this  universe  pervaded ; 
even  every  world  in  the  whole  circle  of  Nature.  Enjoy 
pure  delight,  O  man,  by  abandoning  all  thoughts  of  this 
perishable  world ;  and  covet  not  the  wealth  of  any  crea- 
ture existing." 


40  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

"  God,  who  is  perfect  wisdom  and  perfect  happiness,  is 
the  final  refuge  of  the  man  who  has  hberally  bestowed  his 
wealth,  who  has  been  firm  in  virtue,  and  who  knows  and 
adores  the  Great  One." 

*'  To  those  regions  where  Evil  Spirits  dwell,  and  which 
"Utter  darkness  involves,  surely  go  after  death  all  such  men 
as  destroy  the  purity  of  their  own  souls." 

"  Preserve  thyself  from  self-suflSciency,  and  do  not  covet 
property  belonging  to  another." 

"  The  way  to  eternal  beatitude  is  open  to  him  who  with- 
out omission  speaketh  truth." 

"If  any  one  assumes  the  garb  of  the  religious,  without 
doing  their  works,  he  is  not  of  the  religious.  Whatever 
garments  he  wears,  if  his  works  are  pure,  he  belongs  to 
the  order  of  pure  men.  If  he  wears  the  dress  of  a  penitent, 
and  does  not  lead  the  life  of  a  penitent,  he  belongs  to  the 
men  of  the  world  ;  but  if  he  is  in  the  world,  and  practises 
penitential  works,  he  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  penitent." 

"Those  who  observe  religious  rites,  but  attend  only  to 
the  worship  of  the  sacred  fire,  or  offerings  to  saints,  or  sac- 
rifices to  the  souls  of  departed  ancestors,  or  to  men  and 
other  creatures,  without  attending  to  the  worship  of  the 
celestial  gods,  enter  into  the  region  of  shadows.  But  those 
who  habitually  adore  the  celestial  gods  only,  neglecting  the 
worship  of  the  sacred  fire,  offerings  to  the  saints,  to  the 
souls  of  ancestors,  to  men  and  other  creatures,  enter  into 
regions  of  still  deeper  shadow." 

"Hold  the  breath,  remain  without  movement,  repeat  in- 
wardly A.  U.  M.  twelve  times,  thinking  that  the  soul  is  one 
with  God ;  draw  in  a  full  supply  of  breath,  and  hold  it  while 
inwardly  repeating  A.  U.  M.  twenty-four  times;  afterward, 
hold  the  breath  while  inwardly  repeating  the  same  as  many 
times  as  possible,  thinking  meanwhile  of  God  as  perfect 
Being,  which  can  be  revealed  only  by  its  own  light.  Con- 
tinue this  exercise  three  months,  without  fear  and  without 
idleness.  In  the  fourth  month,  good  Spirits  will  appear  to 
you;  in  the  fifth,  you  will  acquire  the  qualities  of  good 
Spirits ;  in  the  sixth,  you  will  become  God." 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  41 

"  He  who  offers  sacrifices,  at  the  prescribed  times,  is  by 
them  transported  to  the  Paradise  of  Indra.  His  offerings 
make  entrance  for  him  into  this  heaven,  and  say  to  him: 
It  is  the  summit  of  the  heavens ;  there  is  the  fruit  of  thy 
good  works." 

"  All  works  ought  to  be  regarded  merely  as  means  of 
purifying  the  intelligence,  as  means  to  guide  the  traveller 
to  his  home." 

"No  man  can  acquire  knowledge  of  the  soul  without 
abstaining  from  evil  acts,  and  having  control  over  the 
senses  and  the  mind.  Nor  can  he  gain  it,  though  with  a 
firm  mind,  if  he  is  actuated  by  desire  for  reward.  But 
man  may  obtain  knowledge  of  the  soul  by  contemplation 
of  God." 

"The  science  of  God,  leading  to  absorption  in  him,  is 
one  thing;  rites,  which  procure  enjoyments,  are  another. 
Divine  science,  and  rewards  belonging  to  the  observance 
of  rites,  both  present  themselves  to  the  choice  of  man. 
He  who  prefers  faith,  and  despises  reward,  is  endowed  with 
wisdom.  Little  wisdom  has  he  who  devotes  himself  to 
rites  for  the  sake  of  reward,  and  thus  excludes  himself 
from  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  beatitude.  The  wisest  com- 
prehend that  the  science  of  God  and  the  practice  of  works 
are  altogether  opposite  to  each  other." 

"  The  ignorant  suppose  that  the  digging  of  wells,  and 
other  good  works  recommended  in  the  Vedas,  and  the  sac- 
rifices therein  prescribed,  are  the  most  meritorious.  They 
have  no  idea  of  the  science  of  God,  which  is  the  only  source 
of  true  happiness.  By  excessive  desire  for  reward,  they 
are  deprived  of  this  knowledge.  They  will  assuredly  ob- 
tain the  objects  they  seek  by  the  practice  of  works  and 
ceremonies;  but  when  the  period  of  their  recompense  in 
Paradise  has  expired,  they  must  descend  to  the  world 
again,  subjecting  themselves  to  new  transmigrations,  into 
tlie  forms  of  men,  or  animals,  or  plants ;  liable  to  birth, 
sorrow,  disease,  and  death.  These  foolish  ones,  plunged 
in  ignorance,  believing  themselves  wise,  resemble  the  blind 
leading  the  blind.  But  men  who  have  maturely  considered 
Vol.  I.— 4* 


42  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

the  perishable  nature  of  all  advantages  that  works  can  pro- 
cure, hermits  who  live  in  the  forest  upon  alms,  fathers  of 
families,  endowed  with  wisdom,  worshipping  Brahma,  prac- 
tising austerities,  subduing  the  senses,  these  are  delivered 
from  all  sin,  and  ascend  to  the  highest  heaven,  where  reigns 
the  immortal  Brahma,  as  ancient  as  the  world." 

"  Though  man  finds  pleasure  in  that  which  he  sees,  hears, 
smells,  tastes,  and  touches,  he  derives  no  benefit  from  the 
pleasure,  because  the  soiil,  in  attaching  itself  to  external 
objects,  forgets  its  high  origin,  which  is  The  Universal 
Soul." 

"It  is  the  nature  of  the  soul  to  identify  itself  with  the 
object  of  its  tendency.  If  it  tend  toward  the  world,  it 
becomes  the  world.  If  it  tend  toward  God,  it  becomes 
God." 

"Men  endowed  with  penetrating  insight,  with  a  spirit 
full  of  wisdom,  having  withdrawn  their  senses  inward, 
annihilate  them.  They  annihilate  the  interior  senses,  by 
subjecting  them  to  the  control  of  intelligence;  they  anni- 
hilate intelligence,  by  submitting  it  to  the  soul ;  they  anni- 
hilate the  soul  in  the  collection  of  souls ;  and  the  collection 
of  souls  in  the  One  Universal  Soul." 

"Saints  wise  and  firm,  exempt  from  ptission,  assured  of 
the  soul's  divine  origin,  satisfied  solely  with  the  science  of 
God,  have  seen  God  everywhere  present  with  them,  and 
after  death  have  been  absorbed  in  him ;  even  as  the  air 
within  a  jar,  by  the  destruction  of  the  jar,  returns  to  uni- 
versal space." 

"  The  science  of  God  is  not  acquired  by  study  of  the 
Vedas,  nor  through  retentive  memory,  nor  yet  by  constant 
hearing  of  spiritual  instruction;  but  he  who  seeks  to  ob- 
tain it,  finds  it.     The  soul  renders  itself  manifest  to  him." 

"  When  man  has  withdrawn  heart,  soul,  and  senses, 
from  external  things,  and  keeps  himself  without  impulse 
coward  them,. it  is  the  great  degree  of  union.  Then  man 
will  not  fall  into  error  by  mistake  or  negligence,  lie 
watches  incessantly  to  preserve  himself  from  it.  If  all  do 
not  see  the  soul,  it  is  because  their  soul  turns  the  senses 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  43 

from  her,  and  makes  them  tend  outward ;  for  the  soul  is 
the  true  controller,  and  does  all  she  wills." 

"  When  the  sage  perceives  the  Eternal  Cause  every- 
where present,  then  abandoning  the  consequences  of  good 
works  and  of  bad  works,  he  becomes  perfect,  and  obtains 
complete  absorption.  The  sage  who  recognizes  that  God 
resides  in  all  creatures,  forgets  all  idea  of  duality.  He  is 
convinced  that  there  is  only  One  real  existence,  and  that 
is  God.  He  directs  all  his  senses  toward  God  only,  the 
origin  of  his  own  consciousness.  He  concentres  upon  him 
all  his  love,  detaches  his  spirit  from  all  earthly  objects,  by 
fixing  his  soul  continually  upon  God.  A  person  thus  de- 
voted to  God  is  esteemed  the  most  perfect  among  the 
adorers  of  the  Divinity." 

"To  know  that  God  is,  and  that  all  is  God,  this  is  the 
substance  of  the  Vedas.  When  one  attains  to  this,  there 
is  no  more  need  of  reading,  or  of  works;  they  are  but  the 
bark,  the  straw,  the  envelope.  No  more  need  of  them 
when  one  has  the  seed,  the  substance,  the  Creator.  When 
one  knows  Him  by  science,  he  may  abandon  science,  as  the 
torch  which  has  conducted  him  to  the  end." 

The  following  is  one  of  the  numerous  prayers  contained 
in  the  Vedas :  "  Where  they  who  know  the  Great  One  go, 
through  holy  rites  and  through  piety,  thither  may  fire  raise 
me.  May  fire  receive  my  sacrifices.  Mysterious  praise  to 
Fire !  May  air  waft  me  thither.  May  air  increase  my 
spirits.  Mysterious  praise  to  Air !  May  the  sun  draw  me 
thither.  May  the  sun  enlighten  my  eye.  Mysterious 
praise  to  the  Sun!  May  the  moon  bear  me  thither.  May 
the  moon  receive  my  mind.  Mysterious  praise  to  the 
Moon !  May  the  plant  Soma  lead  me  thither.  May  Soma 
bestow  on  me  its  hallowed  milk.  Mysterious  praise  to 
Soma!  May  Indra  carry  me  thither.  JSIay  Indra  give  me 
strength.  Mysterious  praise  to  Indra !  May  water  lead 
me  thither.  May  water  bring  me  the  stream  of  immor- 
tality. Mysterious  praise  to  the  Waters !  Where  they  who 
know  the  Great  One  go,  through  holy  rites  and  through 
piety,  thither  may  Brahma  conduct  me.     May  Brahma 


44  PROGRESS  OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

lead  me  to  the  Great  One.  Mysterious  praise  to  Brahma!" 
The  Code  of  Menu  is  next  in  antiquity  to  the  Vedas,  and 
ranks  the  next  highest  as  sacred  authority.  It  is  called 
Menu  Dherma  Shastra,  which  signifies  Ordinances  of  God. 
Sir  Wilham  Jones  dates  its  existence  one  thousand  two 
hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Clirist;  about  three  hun- 
dred years  later  than  his  date  of  the  Yajur  Veda.  This 
Code  embraces  political  regulations  as  well  as  religious,  and 
up  to  the  present  day  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  whole  civil 
policy  of  Hindostan.  It  rests  everywhere  on  the  authority 
of  the  Vedas,  quotes  them  at  every  page,  and  is  regarded 
with  similar  reverence.  When  India  came  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Great  Britain,  it  was  very  desirable  to  have 
an  English  translation  of  their  Sacred  Laws,  that  the  ad- 
ministration might  avoid  unnecessary  interference  with  the 
ancient  customs  of  the  people.  But  the  Bramin,  who  read 
them  to  Sir  William  Jones,  earnestly  begged  to  have  his 
name  concealed ;  so  great  was  the  offence  of  making  those 
holy  words  known  to  a  foreigner.  On  no  account  would 
he  read  them  on  a  forbidden  day  of  the  moon,  or  without 
first  performing  the  ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  Vedas, 
previous  to  reading  the  Sacred  Writing.  When  the  Eng- 
lish obtained  leave  to  translate  this  Code,  they  were  re- 
quired to  promise  that  it  should  be  bound  in  silk,  or  vel- 
vet, and  by  no  means  in  any  kind  of  leather,  which,  being 
the  skin  of  an  animal,  was  deemed  unclean.  The  Bramins 
at  Benares  positively  and  unanimously  refused  to  assist  in 
the  translation. 

The  book  takes  its  title  from  Menu  Satyavrata,  called 
likewise  Vaivaswata,  or  Child  of  the  Sun,  also  Grandson  of 
Brahma,  whom  Hindoos  believe  to  have  escaped  from  a 
great  deluge,  and  reigned  over  the  whole  world  in  the 
earliest  ages  of  their  chronology.  He  is  represented  as 
saying:  "Brahma,  having  created  this  code  of  laws,  him- 
self taught  it  fully  tome  in  the  beginning.  Afterward, 
I  taught  it  to  Marishi  and  the  nine  other  holy  sages." 

lie  thus  describes  creation: — "This  world  was  all  dark- 
ness, undiscerniblc,  undistinguishable  altogether,  as  in  a 


niNDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  45 

profound  sleep,  till  the  self-existing,  invisible  God,  making 
it  manifest  with  five  elements,  and  other  glorious  forms, 
perfectly  dispelled  the  gloom.  Having  willed  to  produce 
various  beings  from  his  own  divine  essence,  he  first  with  a 
thought  created  the  waters,  and  placed  in  them  a  produc- 
tive seed.  This  seed  became  a  golden  egg  blazing  like  a 
thousand  suns.  In  this  esrsf  he  was  himself  born  in  the 
form  of  Brahma,  the  great  Father  of  all  Spirits.  The 
Great  Power  remained  inactive  in  the  egg  a  whole  year,  at 
the  close  of  which  he  caused  the  egg  to  divide  itself,  and 
from  its  two  divisions  he  framed  the  heavens  above  and 
the  earth  beneath.  In  the  midst  he  placed  the  subtile 
ether,  the  eight  regions,  and  the  permanent  receptacle  of 
Avaters.  From  the  Supreme  Soul  he  drew  forth  Mind,  ex- 
isting substantially,  though  immaterial,  and  unperceived 
by  sense."  Vishnu  is  described  as  assisting  in  the  creation 
of  the  world,  under  the  name  of  Narayana,  "  The  Spirit 
Moving  on  the  Waters."  In  common  with  other  Asiatic 
nations,  they  suppose  creation  to  have  taken  place  in  six 
successive  periods,  and  that  man  and  woman  were  formed 
last. 

The  following  extracts  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of 
the  Code  of  Menu  : 

"  To  patriarchs,  to  deities,  and  to  mankind,  the  Scripture 
is  an  eye  giving  constant  light.  The  Veda  Shastra  could 
not  be  made  by  human  faculties,  nor  can  it  be  measured 
by  human  reason." 

"  The  birth  which  man  derives  from  his  parents  is 
merely  human ;  that  which  the  Vedas  procure  for  him  is 
the  true  birth,  exempt  from  age  or  death." 

"  To  a  man  contaminated  by  sensuality,  neither  the 
Vedas,  nor  liberality,  nor  sacrifices,  nor  strict  observances, 
nor  pious  austerities,  will  procure  felicity." 

'•  A  wise  man  must  faithfully  discharge  all  moral  duties, 
even  though  he  does  not  constantly  perform  the  ceremo- 
nies of  religion.  He  will  fall  very  low,  if  he  performs  cere- 
monial acts  only,  and  fiiils  to  discharge  his  moral  duties." 

"  By  honouring  his  father,  mother,  and  sister,  a  man  effec- 


i6  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tually  does  whatever  ought  to  be  done.  This  is  the  high- 
est duty,  and  every  other  is  subordinate.  All  duties  are 
performed  by  him  who  completely  honours  these  three ;  but 
to  him  by  whom  they  are  dishonoured,  all  other  acts  are 
fruitless." 

"  Whatever  oblations  a  man  actuated  by  strong  faiih 
piously  offers,  as  the  sacred  laws  have  directed,  become  a 
perpetual  unperishable  gratification  to  his  ancestoiB  in  the 
other  world." 

**  Those  rulers  of  the  earth,  who,  desirous  of  defending 
each  other,  exert  their  utmost  strength  in  battle,  without 
ever  averting  their  faces,  ascend  after  death  directly  to 
Paradise." 

"He  whose  sins  are  mostly  corporeal,  will  assume  after 
death  a  vegetable  or  mineral  form ;  for  sins  mostly  verbal, 
he  will  assume  the  form  of  a  bird  or  beast;  for  sins  merely 
mental,  he  will  again  assume  a  human  form,  but  in  some 
of  its  lower  conditions.  An  unauthorized  teacher  of  the 
Sacred  Books  will  return  into  a  dumb  body.  He  who 
steals  a  lamp,  will  be  born  blind." 

"A  Bramin  Avho  drinks  spirituous  liquors,  shall  migrate 
into  the  form  of  a  worm,  or  a  fly  feeding  on  ordure,  or  of 
some  ravenous  animal." 

"  Any  twice-born  man,  who  has  intentionally  drank 
spirit  of  rice,  through  perverse  delusion  of  mind,  ought  to 
swallow  more  spirit  in  flame,  and  thus  atone  for  his  offence 
by  severely  burning  his  body." 

"Should  a  Bramin,  who  has  once  tasted  the  holy  juice 
of  the  Moon-plant,  so  much  as  smell  the  breath  of  a  man 
who  drinks  intoxicating  spirits,  he  must  remove  the  taint 
by  thrice  repeating  the  Gayatree,  while  he  suppresses  his 
breath  in  water;  and  by  eating  clarified  butter  after  that 
ceremony." 

"  He  who  explains  the  Law  to  a  man  of  servile  caste, 
and  instructs  him  in  the  mode  of  expiating  sin,  (except  by 
the  aid  of  the  Bramins,)  sinks  with  that  man  into  the  hell 
called  Asamorita." 

"  A  Soodra,  though  emancipated  by  his  master,  is  not  re- 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  47 

leased  from  a  state  of  servitude ;  for  such  a  man  was  cre- 
ated by  tlie  Supreme  Being  for  the  purpose  of  serving 
Bramins.  No  superfluous  collection  of  wealth  may  be 
made  by  a  Soodra,  even  though  he  have  power  to  make 
it;  since  a  servile  man  who  has  amassed  riches  becomes 
proud,  and  gives  pain  even  to  the  Bramins," 

"If  a  wife  speak  unkindly  to  her  husband,  she  may  be 
superseded  by  another  without  delay." 

"  A  woman  is  never  fit  for  independence." 

"A  man  untainted  with  covetousness  may  be  sole  wit- 
ness, and  may  have  more  weight  than  many  women ;  be- 
cause the  female  understanding  is  apt  to  waver." 

"  Whatever  exists  in  the  universe  is  all,  in  effect,  though 
not  in  form,  the  wealth  of  the  Bramin  ;  since  he  is  entitled 
to  it  by  his  primogeniture  and  eminence  in  rank." 

"He  who  mentions  a  Bramin  with  contumely  should 
have  an  iron  style,  ten  fingers  long,  thrust  red-hot  into  his 
mouth.  He  who,  through  pride,  attempts  to  give  instruc- 
tions to  the  Bramins  concerning  their  duty,  should  have 
hot  oil  dropped  into  his  mouth  and  ears." 

"Let  not  the  king,  though  in  the  greatest  distress,  pro- 
voke the  Bramins  to  anger;  for,  if  once  enraged,  they 
could,  by  sacrifices  and  imprecations,  immediately  destroy 
him,  with  his  troops,  elephants,  horses,  and  chariots." 

"No  greater  crime  is  known  on  earth  than  killing  a 
Bramin.  The  king  must  not  even  form  in  his  own  mind 
the  idea  of  sla3nng  a  priest.  He  "must  never  put  a  Bramin 
to  death,  though  convicted  of  all  possible  crimes.  He  may 
banish  the  offender  from  his  realm,  but  with  all  his  prop- 
erty secure,  and  his  body  uninjured." 

"Let  the  murderer  of  a  Bramin  voluntarily  stand  as  a 
mark  for  the  most  skilful  archers ;  or  throw  himself  into 
the  fire  three  times,  his  whole  length;  or  walk  a  hundred 
leagues  reciting  a  Veda,  eating  little,  and  keeping  all  his 
senses  subdued;  or  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  source  of  the 
Sarawasti,  nourishing  himself  only  on  wild  seeds;  or  recite 
the  collection  of  Vedas  three  times,  without-  taking  nour- 
ishment ;  or  expose  his  life  to  save  a  cow,  or  a  Bramin, 


48  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Thus  may  he  expiate  the  unintentional  murder  of  a  Bra 
min ;  but  if  the  crime  be  committed  with  premeditation, 
there  is  no  way  in  which  it  can  be  expiated." 

"He  who  has  committed  incest,  ought  to  walk  constantly 
in  a  south-west  direction,  till  he  falls  dead  from  exhaustion ; 
or  embrace  a  red-hot  statue ;  or  lie  on  a  burning  fire ;  thus 
will  he  be  purified  by  death." 

"lie  who,  having  committed  a  sin,  makes  parade  of 
penances  and  meritorious  acts,  concealing  his  crime  under 
an  appearance  of  sanctity,  thus  deceiving  women  and  ser- 
vants, such  Bramins  are  accursed  in  this  life,  and  after 
death,  by  all  those  who  pronounce  the  name  of  Brahma." 
[That  is,  by  Bramins.] 

"Let  no  father,  who  knows  the  law,  receive  a  gratuity, 
however  small,  for  giving  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The 
man,  who  through  avarice  takes  a  gratuity  for  that  pur- 
pose, is  a  seller  of  his  offspring." 

"Let  a  widow  emaciate  her  body,  by  living  voluntarily 
on  pure  flowers,  roots,  and  fruit.  When  her  lord  is  de- 
ceased, let  her  not  even  pronounce  the  name  of  another 
man.  Let  her  continue  till  death  forgiving  all  injuries, 
performing  harsh  duties,  avoiding  every  pleasure  of  the 
senses,  and  cheerfully  practising  the  incomparable  rules  of 
virtue,  which  have  been  followed  by  such  women  as  were 
devoted  only  to  one  husband.  Many  thousands  of  Bra- 
mins, having  avoided  sensuality  from  early  youth,  though 
they  have  left  no  issue  in  their  families,  have  nevertheless 
ascended  to  heaven.  And,  like  those  abstemious  men,  a 
virtuous  wife  ascends  to  heaven,  though  she  have  no  child, 
if,  after  the  decease  of  her  lord,  she  devote  herself  to  pious 
austerity.  But  a  widow,  who,  from  a  wish  to  bear  children, 
slights  her  deceased  husband  by  marrying  again,  brings 
disgrace  on  herself  here  below,  and  shall  be  excluded  from 
the  seat  of  her  lord." 

"  The  Bramin  who  has  not  caused  the  least  fear  to  any 
creature  whatsoever,  has  nothing  to  fear  after  he  has  quitted 
his  body." 

"In  whatever  occupation  Brahma  first  employed  any 


« 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  49 

vital  soul,  to  that  occupation  the  same  soul  attaches  itself 
spontaneously,  when  it  receives  a  new  body,  again  and 
again.  Whatever  quahty,  noxious  or  innocent,  harsh  or 
mild,  just  or  unjust,  false  or  true,  conferred  on  any  being 
at  its  creation,  the  same  quality  enters  it  of  course  on  its 
future  births." 

"  The  sacrifice  required  of  Bramins  is  to  gain  knowledge 
and  instruct  others;  of  the  Cshatriyas,  that  they  protect 
others;  of  the  Vaisyas,  that  they  supply  wants  by  com- 
merce ;  of  the  Soodras,  that  they  serve  others." 

"Some  make  sacrifice  of  their  breath,  by  instructing 
others  of  God;  some  make  sacrifice  of  their  speech,  by 
meditating  upon  God  in  silence.  In  speech  and  breath, 
thus  employed,  they  perceive  the  imperishable  fruits  of 
true  sacrificial  offerings." 

"Thoughts,  words,  the  actions  of  the  body,  produce 
fruits  liappy  or  pernicious.  From  these  result  the  superior, 
middling,  and  inferior  transmigrations  of  men." 

^^  By  overcoming  the  senses,  by  suppressing  joy  and 
hate,  man  obtains  immortality.  Let  the  anchorite  not  re- 
joice to  die,  or  wish  to  live;  but  wait  for  death. as  a  day- 
laborer  waits  for  him  who  assigned  his  task.  Let  him 
endure  injuries,  and  despise  no  person.  Let  him  be  care- 
ful to  commit  no  hostile  action,  out  of  care  for  his  own 
preservation.  Let  him  not  be  offended  with  those  who  are 
angry  with  him,  but  reply  gently  to  those  who  curse  him. 
Finding  his  pleasure  in  the  contemplation  of  the  Supreme 
Spirit,  let  him  attach  himself  to  nothing;  but  seek  happi- 
ness in  communion  with  himself." 

"Like  a  tree  carried  far  from  the  river  which  saw  its 
birth,  like  a  bird  that  flies  from  the  branch  where  it  rested, 
man  ought  to  free  himself  from  the  body;  for  thus  will  he 
see  himself  delivered  from  the  devouring  monster  of  this 
world.  Leaving  the  reward  of  good  works  to  those  who 
value  it,  and  to  his  enemies  the  weight  of  his  fixults,  he 
passes  from  contemplation  to  the  bosom  of  eternal  di- 
■\'inity." 

"  The  soul  itself  is  its  own  witness  and  its  own  refuge. 
Vol.  I.— 5  c 


50  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Oflend  not  tHy  conscious  soul,  the  supreme  internal  wit- 
ness of  men  !  The  sinful  have  said  in  their  hearts,  None 
see  us.  Yet  the  gods  distinctly  see  them,  and  so  does  the 
Spirit  within  their  own  breasts.  The  guardian  deities  of 
the  firmament,  of  the  earth,  of  the  waters,  of  the  human 
heart,  of  the  moon,  of  the  sun,  and  of  fire,  of  punishment 
after  death,  of  the  Avinds,  of  night,  of  both  twilights,  and 
of  justice,  perfectly  know  the  state  of  all  spirits  clothed 
with  bodies.  Oh,  friend  to  virtue  !  that  Supreme  Spirit, 
which  thoii  believest  one  and  the  same  with  thyself,  resides 
in  thy  own  bosom  perpetually,  and  is  an  all-knowing  in- 
spector of  thy  goodness  or  thy  wickedness.  If,  by  speak- 
ing falsely,  thou  art  not  at  variance  with  Yama  the  sub- 
duer  of  all,  with  Vaivaswata  the  punisher,  with  that  Great 
Divinity  that  dwells  in  thy  own  breast,  go  not  on  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  river  Ganges,  nor  to  the  plains  of  Guru  ; 
for  thou  hast  no  need  of  expiation." 

Next  to  the  Vedas,  and  the  Code  of  Menu,  the  most  an- 
cient and  the  most  venerated  of  the  Sacred  Books  are  two 
epic  poems,  called  The  Ramayana,  and  The  Mahabharata. 
The  extreme  antiquity  of  both  is  proved  by  sculptures  on 
exceedingly  ancient  temples,  carved  in  solid  rock.  The 
subject  of  the  Ramayana  is  the  victory  of  the  divine  hero 
Rama,  over  Ravana,  prince  of  the  wicked  genii,  called 
Rakshasas.  Evil  Spirits  came  near  gaining  ascendancy 
over  the  benevolent  Deities,  because  the  latter  had  bound 
themselves  by  a  promise  to  make  their  adversaries  invul- 
nerable, and  they  could  not  violate  their  word.  There- 
fore, no  one  but  a  mortal  could  subdue  the  Prince  of  Evil ; 
and  it  must  be  a  mortal  of  superhuman  endowments.  In 
this  emergency,  the  gods  besought  Vishnu  to  become  a 
man.  lie  accordingly  divided  himself  into  four  parts,  and 
assumed  the  mortal  shape  of  four  brothers,  of  whom  Rama 
was  chief.  But  all  the  time  that  he  was  on  earth  in  a  hu- 
man body,  he  remained  the  same  Vishnu  in  celestial  regions. 
In  tlie  course  of  his  adventures  in  this  world,  he  was  ban- 
ished by  the  king,  and  retired  into  a  forest  with  his  bro- 
ther Lakshman  and  his  wife  Sita.      There  they  all  led  the 


HINDOSTAN,   OR   INDIA.  51 

life  of  holy  penitents,  and  became  renowned  for  miracles. 
After  various  contests  with  Evil  Spirits,  the  god-man  at 
last  destroyed  their  prince  Ravana,  and  brought  them  all 
into  subjection.  He  then  returned  in  glory  to  his  celestial 
abode,  taking  with  him  those  who  had  assisted  his  labors' 
on  earth. 

Tlie  Ramayana  is  principally  occupied  with  the  battles 
and  miracles  of  Rama,  but  moral  maxims  and  theological 
doctrines  are  occasionally  interspersed.  The  following 
precept  is  an  antique  gem: — '-I'he  sacrifice  of  a  thousand 
horses  has  been  put  in  the  balance  with  one  true  word, 
and  the  one  true  word  weighed  down  the  thousand  sacri- 
fices. No  virtue  surpasses  that  of  veracity.  It  is  by  truth 
alone  that  men  attain  to  the  highest  mansions  of  bliss. 
Men  faithless  to  the  truth,  however  much  they  may  seek 
supreme  happiness,  will  not  obtain  it,  even  though  they 
offer  a  thousand  sacrifices.  There  are  two  roads  whicti 
conduct  to  perfect  virtue  ;  to  be  true,  and  to  do  no  evil  to 
any  creature." 

The  primitive  cit}-,  founded  by  Menu,  the  first  ruler  of 
mankind,  is  thus  described  in  the  Ramayana :  "It  abounded 
with  merchants  of  all  sorts,  male  and  female  dancers,  ele- 
phants, horses,  and  chariots.  It  was  filled  with  riches, 
decorated  with  precious  stones,  abundantly  supplied  with 
all  manner  of  provisions,  beautified  with  temples  and  pal- 
aces, whose  lofty  summits  equalled  the  mountains,  adorned 
with  baths  and  gardens,  and  thickly  planted  with  mango 
trees.  The  air  was  fragrant  with  the  perfume  of  flowers, 
with  incense,  and  the  sweet-smelling  savour  of  sacrificial 
offerings.  It  was  inhabited  by  twice-born  men  [the  regen- 
erated], who  were  profoundly  learned  in  the  Vedas,  en- 
dowed with  excellent  qualities,  full  of  sincerity,  zeal,  and 
compassion,  and  perfectly  masters  of  their  passions  and  de- 
sires. There  was  no  covetous  person  in  the  city,  no  liar, 
no  deceiver,  no  one  of  an  evil  or  implacable  disposition. 
None  of  the  inhabitants  lived  less  than  one  thousand  years, 
and  all  left  a  numerous  offspring.  None  of  them  went 
without  ear-rings,  necklaces,  garlands,  perfumes,  and  rich- 


52  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ly  ornamented  garments.  No  one  gave  the  Bramins  less 
than  one  thousand  rupees;  and  none  flinched  from  per- 
forming the  duties  appropriate  to  their  respective  situa- 
tions." 

The  Mahabharata  commemorates  a  later  incarnation  of 
Vishnu  in  the  form  of  Crishna,  and  is  supposed  to  be  some- 
what less  ancient  in  date.  Bramins  attribute  it  to  V3'asa, 
and  say  it  was  written  before  their  era,  the  commencement 
of  the  Cali  Yug ;  consequently  more  than  five  thousand 
years  ago,  Wilkins,  the  learned  Oriental  scholar,  thinks 
there  is  satisfactory  evidence  of  its  being  four  thousand 
years  old.  Sir  William  Jones  places  it  seven  hundred 
years  later.  Sculptures  on  the  old  rock  temples  prove 
that  they  have  not  assigned  too  great  antiquity  to  either 
of  these  poems.  They  abound  with  the  adventures  of 
gods,  goddesses,  and  heroes,  described  with  the  vast  accu- 
mulation of  incidents  and  glittering  redundancy  of  me- 
taphor characteristic  of  Asiatic  writings.  The  veneration 
iu  which  they  were  held  introduced  many  new  ceremonies 
into  worship,  and  greatly  complicated  theological  machi- 
nery. Heeren  says  :  "  The  Vedas  were  the  real  source  of 
Hindoo  religion  ;  but  their  mythology  came  from  later  epic 
poems."  The  subject  of  the  Mahabharata  is  the  contest 
between  two  branches  of  the  royal  famil}^,  the  Coros  and 
the  Pandos ;  during  which  Crishna  sustains  his  relatives, 
the  Pandos.  This  event  is  as  famous  in  their  ancient  tra- 
ditions, as  was  the  Trojan  war  among  the  Greeks.  The 
poem  contains  a  celebrated  episode,  called  the  Bhagavat 
Geeta,  from  which  extracts  will  be  given  in  the  following 
pages.  It  relates  the  history  and  conversations  of  Vishnu, 
while  on  earth  in  the  form  of  Crishna.  The  subjugation 
of  the  passions  and  desires,  as  a  means  of  attaining  to  com- 
})lete  holiness,  forms  its  moral  system.  Heeren  observes 
that  "  the  poetry  of  no  other  nation  exhibits  the  didactic 
character  in  such  a  striking  manner  as  that  of  the  Hin- 
doos ;  for  no  other  peo[)lc  were  so  thoroughly  imbued  with 
the  persuasion  that  to  give  and  receive  instruction  was  the 
sole  ultimate  object  of  life." 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  58 

There  is  a  set  of  loss  ancient  Sacred  Books,  called  Pou- 
ranas,  wliicli  means  Old  Legends.  They  consist  princi- 
pally of  traditions  concerning  gods  and  men;  such  as  the 
history  of  the  Deluge,  of  their  holy  city  Benares,  the  ad- 
ventures of  Siva,  and  the  various  incarnations  of  Vishnu. 
These  books  form  the  basis  of  modern  popular  theology 
in  India.  They  have  nearly  superseded  the  Vedas,  and 
being  far  less  spiritual,  they  indicate  the  degeneracy  which 
they  have  rapidly  hastened.  Sir  William  Jones  gives  a 
list  of  eighteen ;  believed  to  have  been  composed  by  holy 
men,  who,  through  devout  contemplation  and  self-annihi- 
lating practices,  received  inspiration  directly  from  the  Di- 
vine Source.  They  contain  internal  evidence  of  being 
written  at  different  epochs,  but  there  are  no  means  of  arriv- 
ing at  correct  dates.  Oriental  scholars  suppose  they  were 
not  collected  too^ether  until  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  was  born  three  hundred  and  fifty-six  years  be- 
fore Christ.  Some  of  them  ascribe  more  honour  to  Yishnu, 
others  to  Siva,  whose  adventures  are  described  with  the 
wildest  rano;e  of  imagination.  The  ancient  doctrine  of 
One  Invisible  God  is  almost  entirely  lost  sight  of.  Large 
portions  of  them  are  filled  with  rules  for  external  ceremo- 
nies ;  but  in  some  of  the  dialogues  such  questions  as  these 
are  started : 

"What  are  the  Three  Principal  Powers?  How  came 
Brahma  into  existence?  How  did  he  create  the  world? 
How  is  the  soul  united  to  the  body?  How  is  it  absorbed 
into  the  Godhead?  What  are  the  various  forms  assumed 
by  Vishnu?  What  is  holiness?  Whfit  are  good  works? 
What  is  the  object  of  all  these  things  ?" 

Father  Bouchet,  in  his  "Letters  from  Hindostan,"  quotes 
the  following  account  from  one  of  the  Pouranas  : 

"  The  inferior  Spirits,  who,  ever  since  creation,  have  been 
multiplying  themselves  almost  to  infinity,  did  not  at  first 
enjoy  the  privilege  of  immortality.  After  numberless  ef- 
forts to  procure  it,  they  had  recourse  to  a  Tree,  which  grew 
in  Paradise,  and  by  eating  its  fruit  they  became  immortal. 
A  Serpent,  called  Chien,  appointed  to  guard  the  Tree  of 
Vol.  I. — 5* 


54  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Life,  was  so  exasperated  bj  their  proceedings,  that  he 
poured  out  a  great  quantity  of  poison.  The  whole  earth  felt 
the  terrible  effects  of  it;  and  not  one  mortal  would  have 
escaped,  had  not  the  god  Chiven  taken  pity  on  the  human 
race,  revealed  himself  under  the  shape  of  a  man,  and  swal- 
lowed the  poison."  In  their  old  sacred  places,  this  tradi 
tion  is  commemorated  by  representations  of  a  Tree,  a 
Ser})ent,  and  human  figures  eating  of  the  fruit. 

Menu  Satyavrata,  author  of  the  Code  of  Menu,  is  reprc- 
resented  as  a  saint  who  attained  to  such  extreme  spiritu- 
ality, that  he  subsisted  entirely  on  water.  The  following 
account  of  his  escape  from  the  Deluge  is  taken  from  the 
Bhasravat  Geeta: — ''One  dav,  when  Brahma  was  inclined  to 
slumber,  the  giant  demon  Hayagriva  stole  the  four  Vedas, 
swallowed  them,  and  concealed  himself  in  the  sea.  Vishnu, 
the  Pervader  and  Preserver  of  the  Universe,  discovered 
the  deed,  and,  assuming  the  shape  of  a  small  fish,  he  ap- 
peared to  Menu.  The  saint  recognized  him  to  be  an  in- 
carnated divinity  by  his  immense  growth  in  a  few  days. 
Suspecting  him  to  be  Vishnu,  he  thus  addressed  him :  '  O 
thou  Lotus-eyed,  let  me  not  approach  in  vain  the  feet  of  a 
deity,  whose  perfect  benevolence  has  been  extended  to  all, 
when,  to  our  amazement,  thou  hast  shown  thj'self  in 
bodies,  not  indeed  existing  in  reality,  but  successively  ex- 
hibited.' 

"  The  Lord  of  the  Universe,  loving  the  holy  man,  and  in- 
tending to  preserve  him  from  the  sea  of  destruction,  caused 
by  the  wickedness  of  the  age,  thus  addressed  him  :  '  0  thou 
tamer  of  enemies,  in  seven  days  from  this  time,  the  three 
worlds  will  be  plunged  in  an  ocean  of  death.  But  in  the 
midst  of  the  destroying  waves,  a  large  vessel,  sent  by  me 
for  thy  use,  shall  stand  before  thee.  Then  shalt  thou  take 
nil  medicinal  herbs,  all  variety  of  seeds,  and  accompanied 
by  seven  saints,  with  your  respective  wives,  encircled  by 
pairs  of  all  brute  animals,  thou  shalt  enter  the  capacious 
ship,  and  continue  in  it,  on  an  immense  ocean,  secure  from 
tiic  flood,  and  without  light,  except  from  the  radiance  of 
thy  lioly  companions.     When  the  ship  shall  be  agitated 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  55 

bj  impetuous  wiuds,  thou  slialt  fastcu  it  with  a  large  sea- 
serpent  to  my  horn;  for  I  will  be  near  thee.  Menu  Saty- 
avrata  complied  with  these  directions;  and  the  Primeval 
Male  [Brahma],  speaking  aloud  to  his  own  Divine  Essence, 
pronounced  for  the  instruction  of  Menu  a  Sacred  History, 
explaining  the  principle  of  the  soul  and  of  external  being. 
Vishnu  then  slew  the  demon,  and  recovered  the  Sacred 
Books.  But  the  appearance  of  the  horned  fish  was  an  illu- 
sion." 

The  ancient  temples  of  liindostan  contain  representa- 
tions of  Vishnu  sustaining  the  earth  while  overwhelmed 
with  the  waters  of  the  Deluge  and  convulsed  hy  demons. 
A  rainbow  is  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  subsiding  waters. 

The  following  is  translated  from  the  Padma  Pourana: — 
"  To  Menu  Satyavrata,  that  sovereign  of  the  whole  earth, 
were  born  three  sons.  The  oldest  was  Sherma,  then  Charma, 
then  Jya[)eti.  They  were  all  men  of  good  morals,  excel- 
lent in  virtuous  deeds,  skilled  in  the  use  of  weapons,  either 
to  strike  with,  or  be  thrown,  brave  men,  eager  for  victory 
in  battle.  But  Satyavrata,  being  continually  delighted 
with  devout  meditation,  and  seeing  his  sons  fit  for  domin- 
ion, laid  upon  them  the  burden  of  government,  whilst  he 
remained  honouring  and  satisfying  the  gods,  and  priests, 
and  kine.  One  day,  by  the  act  of  destiu}'-,  the  king,  having 
drunk  mead,  became  senseless  and  lay  asleep  naked.  Thus 
was  he  seen  by  Charma,  and  by  him  were  his  two  brothers 
called.  To  whom  he  said:  '  What  now  has  befallen?  In 
what  state  is  this  our  sire?'  By  those  two  was  he  hidden 
with  clothes,  and  called  to  his  senses  again  and  again. 
Having  recovered  his  intellect,  and  perfectly  knowing 
what  had  passed,  he  cursed  Charma,  saying:  'Thou  shalt 
be  the  servant  of  servants;  and  since  thou  wast  a  laughter 
in  their  presence,  from  laughter  shalt  thou  acquire  a  name.' 
Then  he  gave  to  Sherma  the  wide  domain  on  the  south  of 
the  snowy  mountains ;  and  to  Jyapeti  he  gave  all  on  the 
north  of  the  snowy  mountains.  But  he  himself,  by  the 
power  of  religious  contemplation,  attained  supreme  bliss." 

One  of  the  Pouranas  contains  the  following  description 


56  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  the  wedding  between  Siva  tlie  Generator,  and  Parvati, 
Goddess  of  Enchantments.  It  is  probably  a  poetical  al- 
legory, to  commemorate  the  beautiful  phenomena  of  Na- 
ture's renovation  in  the  Spring.  "  All  the  inhabitants  of 
the  celestial  regions  were  summoned  to  arrange  the  ce- 
remonials of  marriage  between  Siva  and  Parvati.  First 
came  Brahma,  mounted  on  his  swan  ;  next,  Vishnu,  riding 
his  eagle.  The  rivers  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  the  seven 
seas ;  the  Gandharvas,  and  the  Asparas ;  Vasooke,  and 
other  serpents ;  all  ornamented  with  superb  chains  and 
ceremonial  dresses,  in  obedience  to  the  commands  of  Siva, 
were  to  be  seen  in  the  glittering  cavalcade.  Siva  set  out 
from  the  mountain  Kailasa  with  the  utmost  pomp  and 
splendour.  His  third  eye  flamed  like  the  sun,  and  the  cres- 
cent on  his  forehead  assumed  the  form  of  a  radiated 
diadem.  His  snakes  were  exchanged  for  chains  of  pearls 
and  rubies,  his  ashes  for  sandal-wood  and  perfumes,  and 
his  elephant's  skin  for  a  silken  robe.  The  Gandharvas  and 
the  Asparas  joined  in  melodious  songs,  and  the  Ginarers 
with  the  magic  of  their  musical  instruments.  Nature  as- 
sumed the  appearance  of  renovated  youth  ;  the  earth 
exulted  with  acclamations  of  glory  and  triumph ;  fresh 
moisture  invigorated  the  withered  victims  of  time  ;  a 
thousand  happy  and  animating  conceptions  inspired  the 
hearts  of  the  intelligent,  and  enlightened  the  wisdom  of  the 
thoughtful ;  the  kingdom  of  external  forms  obtained  glad- 
ness ;  the  world  of  intellect  acquired  brightness.  The 
dwellers  upon  earth  filled  the  casket  of  their  ideas  with 
jewels  of  delight,  and  reverend  pilgiums  exchanged  their 
rosaries  for  pearls.  The  joy  of  those  on  earth  ascended  up 
to  heaven;  and  the  tree  of  bliss  in  heaven  extended  its 
branches  downward  to  the  earth.  The  eyes  of  the  gods 
flamed  like  torches  at  sight  of  this  enrapturing  scene,  and 
the  hearts  of  the  just  kindled  like  touchwood  while  they 
listened  to  the  ravishing  symphonies.  Siva  set  off  like  a 
garden  in  full  bloom,  uud  Paradise  was  eclipsed  by  his 
procession." 

In  relation  to  the  amours  of  the  gods,  the  Pouranas  say  : 


HINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  57 

"  Adulter}'-  is  a  sin  against  the  laws  established  in  our 
societies,-  but  Divine  Beings  are  not  subject  to  our  laws  of 
convenience.  The  incomprehensible  views  of  God  ought 
not  to  be  confounded  with  those  of  men.  There  are  ac- 
tions of  which  the  end  is  unknown,  which  would  be  crim- 
inal for  us,  but  would  not  be  so  for  either  gods  or  saints  ; 
for  holiness,  like  lire,  purifies  all  things." 

The  episode  from  the  Mahabharata,  called  Bhagavat- 
Gecta,  forms  one  volume  of  the  Pouranas.  It  is  more 
beautiful  in  style,  and  more  spiritual  in  its  teaching,  than 
any  of  the  others.  According  to  the  triple  division  of 
duties  common  among  Hindoos,  it  prescribes  three  kinds  of 
penance.  "  Penance  of  the  hodi/,  to  be  chaste,  and  free  from 
all  offences  ;  penance  of  ivords^  to  speak  always  with  kind- 
ness and  truth,  and  to  read  the  Sacred  Books  diligently  ; 
penance  of  thoughts,  to  subdue  one's  self,  to  purify  the  soul, 
to  be  silent,  and  disposed  to  benevolence." 

"  To  practise  penance  to  obtain  dignity  or  fame,  or  to 
give  one's  self  an  air  of  sanctity,  is  a  penance  little  worth, 
and  has  its  source  in  inferior  influences  on  the  soul.  Pen- 
ances performed  by  a  man  attached  to  foolish  doctrines,  or 
those  which  consist  in  self-torment,  or  those  whose  end  is 
to  do  injury  to  another,  these  have  their  source  in  the 
region  of  shadows." 

"  God  resides  in  the  heart  of  all  creatures." 

"  When  thy  spirit  shall  have  become  perfectly  free  from 
the  labyrinths  in  which  it  is  involved,  then  thou  wilt  ar- 
rive at  indifference  concerning  the  Vedas  and  the  sacred 
traditions." 

It  is  stated  in  the  Pouranas  that  the  Vedas  were  carried 
from  India  to  Egypt,  by.  a  noble  and  blameless  race  of 
men,  called  Yadavas,  who  emigrated  thither  on  account  of 
the  persecutions  of  a  tyrant  named  Causa ;  and  that  after- 
ward a  race  of  men  called  Pali,  or  Shepherds,  went  from 
India  and  conqnsred  Egypt. 

The  idea  that  a  dead  uniformity  of  opinion  prevails  in 
Asiatic  countries,  is  a  mistake,  originating  in  our  ignorance 
of  their  internal  history.     There  is  certainly  far  less  acti- 

c* 


68  PROGRESS  OF  RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

vity  of  mind  than  in  Europe,  and  of  course  changes  are 
more  slow  and  limited  in  elt'cct.  But  the  so.me  questions, 
which  have  agitated  the  theological  schools  of  Europe, 
have  disturbed  the  East  also,  under  forms  modified  by  their 
circumstances.  They  have  an  immense  number  of  com- 
mentaries on  their  Sacred  Books,  filled  with  nice  metaphy- 
sical distinctions  and  intricate  arguments  concerning  dis- 
puted texts. 

The  division  of  the  Yedas  into  two  distinct  portions,  one 
teaching  spiritual  doctrines  concerning  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  communion  of  the  soul  with  Him,  while  the  other 
prescribed  elaborate  ceremonials  and  the  worship  of  many 
symbolical  deities,  originated  in  the  idea  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  elevate  the  minds  of  the  populace  to  the  contem- 
plation of  One  Invisible  Spirit,  and,  therefore,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  clothe  religious  ideas  in  forms  suited  to  their  com.- 
prehension.  Thus  while  higher  doctrines  wei'e  reserved 
for  sages,  the  worship  of  external  symbols  was  not  only  al- 
lowed to  the  ignorant,  but  absolutely  prescribed,  though 
always  represented  as  far  inferior  to  the  contemplation  of 
One  Unchangeable  Being. 

The  people  accustomed  to  worship  images  of  symbolical 
deities,  soon  chose  one  or  another  of  them  for  a  favourite, 
and  regarded  it  as  God  himself.  Thus,  there  grew  up  a 
very  large  body  of  worshippers  of  Siva,  called  Sivaites. 
All  that  the  Vedas  ascribe  to  the  Supreme  Bei-ng,  they  as- 
cribe to  Siva.  When  they  speak  of  the  final  state  of  holi- 
ness at  which  a  perfect  saint  arrives,  they  call  it  the  ab- 
sorption of  his  soul  into  Siva.  They  have  a  Sacred  Book, 
which  they  say  is  a  revelation  from  Siva;  and  they  deny 
the  possibility  of  salvation  to  those  who  do  not  believe  in 
his  incarnation  therein  described.  Whenever  one  of  his 
true  worshippers  dies,  they  believe  he  sends  some  of  his 
attendant  Spirits  to  usher  the  soul  into  his  presence,  and 
become  a  sharer  of  his  felicity. 

Another  sect,  nearly  as  numerous,  adore  the  Supreme 
Being  under  the  name  of  Vishnu,  and  are  therefore  called 
Vishnuites.      Bramius   alone   officiate    as    priests   among 


niNDOSTAN",    OK   INDIA.  59 

them,  as  among  the  other  sects  ;  but  they  allow  people  of 
all  castes  to  devote  themselves  to  the  contemplative  life. 
They  eat  no  flesh,  refrain  from  bloody  sacrifices,  and  are 
peculiarly  distinguished  by  their  tenderness  towards  ani- 
mals. That  portion  of  the  Pouranas  which  favours  this 
worship  declares:  "The  devotees  of  Vishnu  alone  are  in  a 
situation  to  surmount  the  illusion  of  appearances.  It  is 
advantageous  and  meritorious  to  be  born  man  ;  still  more 
so  to  be  born  a  Bramin  ;  but  a  Bramin  may  corrupt  him- 
self and  become  abject.  There  is  incomparably  more  merit 
and  more  nobleness  in  the  practice  of  true  devotion  ;  but 
rigorous  penances,  long  prayers,  frequent  ablutions,  alms- 
giving, vows,  and  sacrifices,  have  no  merit,  and  confer  no 
beatitude,  without  this  devotion  to  Vishnu." 

"To  avoid  the  pains  of  hell  there  are  no  means  more 
efficacious  than  to  remember  Vishnu,  and  invoke  his  sacred 
name.  Yes,  his  divine  names  have  so  much  virtue,  that 
even  if  pronounced  without  design,  or  by  mistake,  they 
will  not  fail  to  produce  salutary  eftects." 

The  author  of  this  Pourana  goes  on  to  tell  the  history  of 
a  Bramin,  who  had  given  himself  up  to  all  manner  of  vices. 
One  of  his  sons  was  named  Narayana,  a  title  of  Vishnu, 
signifying  Moving  on  the  Waters.  When  the  wicked  Bra- 
min was  dying,  he  called  this  son,  without  thinking  that 
he  was  repeating  one  of  the  names  of  Vishnu.  But  the 
sacred  word,  thus  carelessly  pronounced,  saved  him  from 
all  his  sins,  and  immediately  opened  for  him  the  gates  of 
Paradise. 

All  Hindoo  theology  teaches  the  pre-existence  of  souls, 
who  are  gliding  through  the  universe,  and  assuming  mul- 
tifarious forms,  till  they  complete  the  great  circle  of  des- 
tiny, and  become  the  Supreme  Soul  again,  as  they  were  at 
the  beginning.  The  belief  that  Spirits  descended  from 
their  original  sphere  and  became  men,  that  by  holiness  they 
might  become  beatified  spirits  in  Paradise,  and  then  retui-n 
to  earth  to  be  born  again  in  some  new  form  of  mortal  ex- 
istence, naturally  gave  rise  to  the  idea  that  men  i-cmai'k- 
able   for  wisdom   or    holiness  Jiad   descended   from   some 


60  PIIOGRESS   OF   JIELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

higher  sphere,  and  were  in  fact  gods  incarnated  in  a  hu- 
man form  to  fulfil  some  great  mission.  The  Invisible  One, 
who  could  only  be  contemplated  by  an  abstraction  of  the 
intellect,  was  too  far  removed  from  a  great  majority  of 
minds;  and  even  the  powerful  emanations,  Vislmu  and 
Siva,  appealed  to  their  sympathies  far  more  strongly  when 
brought  down  to  them  in  the  persons  of  mortals  who  lived 
in  their  midst.  Hence  we  meet  everywhere  with  warriors 
and  saints,  who  were  believed  to  be  deities  in  disguise. 
History  and  mythology  consequently  mix  together  in  such 
a  confused  tangle,  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell  where 
the  adventures  of  the  king  or  warrior  end,  and  those  of  the 
god  begin. 

The  Vishnuites  split  into  two  principal  sects.  One  is 
more  devoted  to  Vishnu  in  the  form  of  Eama;  the  other  be- 
lieves that  his  eighth  incarnation  in  the  form  of  Crishna 
was  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  efficacious.  Both  were 
princes,  and  holy  men,  and  great  workers  of  miracles.  The 
advent  of  Vishnu  under  the  name  of  Crishna  is  the  most 
poetic  and  the  most  remarkable.  The  Bramins  date  it  be- 
fore the  Call  Yug ;  that  is,  more  than  five  thousand  years 
ago.  The  following  account  is  abridged  from  the  Bhaga- 
vat  Geeta,  which  Sir  William  Jones  supposes  to  have  been 
Avritten  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  fiftj^-one  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ : — 

The  earth  was  so  oppressed  by  the  dominion  of  Evil 
Spirits,  that  she  could  no  longer  endure  their  injustice. 
Assuming  the  form  of  a  cow,  she  appeared  before  Indra, 
and  complained  of  her  wrongs.  He  referred  her  to  Siva, 
who,  in  his  turn,  sent  her  to  Vishnu,  Vishnu  escorted  her 
to  the  Temple  of  Brahma  the  Invisible,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Milky  Sea.  There  the  oracle  commanded  him  to  be- 
come a  man,  and  be  born  in  the  city  of  Matra,  under  the 
name  of  Crishna.  Vishnu  replied:  "I  will  become  incar- 
nate in  the  house  of  Yadu,  and  will  issue  forth  to  mortal 
birtli  from  the  womb  of  Devaci.  It  is  time  I  should  dis- 
))laY  niy  power,  and  relieve  the  oppressed  earth  from  its 
load" 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  61 

Devaci  was  tlie  sister  of  a  tyrannical  king  named  Cansa, 
whose  oppressions  are  said  to  have  caused  the  first  emigra- 
tion to  Egypt,  lie  married  her  to  a  Bramin  named  Vasu- 
deva,  descended  from  the  Yadus,  or  Yadavas,  the  oldest 
and  noblest  line  in  India.  Returning  from  the  wedding, 
Cansa  heard  a  prophetic  voice  declare,  "  The  eighth  son  of 
Devaci  is  destined  to  be  tiiy  destroyer."  Alarmed  at  this 
omen,  he  put  his  sister  and  her  husband  into  a  strong 
prison  guarded  by  seven  iron  doors,  and  whenever  a  son 
was  born  to  them  he  caused  him  to  be  immediately  de- 
stroyed. When  Devaci  became  pregnant  the  eighth  time, 
her  countenance  was  radiant  with  celestial  light.  Brahma 
and  Siva,  with  a  host  of  attendant  spirits,  came  to  her  and 
sang :  "  In  thy  delivery,  O  favoured  among  women,  all  na- 
ture shall  have  cause  to  exult.  How  ardently  we  long  to 
behold  that  face  for  the  sake  of  which  we  have  coursed 
round  three  worlds!"  The  seasons  preceding  this  mar- 
vellous birth  were  uncommonly  regular  and  genial,  the 
planets  were  unusually  brilliant,  strong  winds  were  hushed, 
rivers  glided  tranquilly,  and  the  virtuous  experienced  ex 
traordinary  delights.  In  the  month  Bhadron,  at  deep 
midnight,  when  the  Sustainer  of  All  was  about  to  be  born, 
the  clouds  emitted  low  musical  sounds,  and  poured  down  a 
rain  of  flowers.  When  the  celestial  infant  appeared,  a 
chorus  of  heavenly  Spirits  saluted  him  with  hymns.  The 
whole  room  was  illuminated  by  his  light,  and  the  counte- 
nances of  his  father  and  mother  emitted  rays  of  glory. 
Their  understandings  were  opened,  they  knew  him  to  be 
the  Preserver  of  the  World,  and  began  to  worship  him, 
But  he  soon  closed  their  minds,  so  that  they  thought  he 
was  merely  a  human  child  born  unto  them.  While  his 
mother  was  weeping  over  him,  and  lamenting  the  cruel 
decrees  of  her  tyrannical  brother,  a  voice  was  distinctly 
heard,  saying:  "  Son  of  Yadu,  carry  this  child  to  Gokul,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  river  Jumna,  to  Nanda,  whose  wife 
has  just  given  birth  to  a  daughter.  Leave  him,  and  bring 
the  girl  hither."  Vasudeva  inquired:  "How  is  that  pos- 
sible in  a  prison  so  closelv  guarded?"  The  voice  replied: 
Vol.  I.— G 


62  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

"The  doors  will  open  of  themselves,  and  I  have  caused  a 
deep  sleep  to  fall  upon  all  the  guards."  Then  Vasudeva 
took  the  child  in  his  arras,  the  doors  opened,  and  he  passed 
out.  Being  in  the  rainy  season,  the  current  of  the  river 
Jumna  was  rapid  and  strong;  but  when  the  divine  child 
approached,  the  waters  rose  up  to  kiss  his  feet,  then  re- 
spectfully retired  on  either  side  and  left  a  dry  pathway. 
The  great  hooded  serpent  of  Vishnu  held  her  head  over 
him  all  the  way,  instead  of  an  umbrella.  When  they  ar- 
rived at  Nanda's  house,  the  door  opened  of  itself.  He  and 
his  wife  were  asleep.  He  took  their  infant  daugliter  in  his 
arms,  and  left  the  boy  with  them.  When  he  returned,  the 
river  again  separated  to  offer  him  free  passage,  the  prison 
gates  opened,  the  guards  were  all  asleep,  and  he  delivered 
the  girl  to  his  wife.  Eepresentations  of  this  flight  with  the 
babe  at  midnight  are  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  ancient 
Hindoo  temples. 

Nanda,  who  had  long  wished  for  a  son,  was  delighted 
when  he  woke  and  found  a  beautiful  boy  sleeping  by  the 
side  of  his  wife.  He  named  him  Crishna,  in  allusion  to 
his  colour,  which  was  blueish  black.  Even  in  infancy  he 
attracted  attention  by  the  miracles  he  performed.  His 
foster-father  had  many  herds,  which  Crishna  assisted  in 
tending.  On  one  occasion,  a  great  serpent  poisoned  the 
river,  so  that  the  cows  and  the  shepherd-boys,  who  drank 
of  the  water,  lay  dead  on  the  banks  in  great  numbers. 
Crishna  merely  looked  on  them  with  an  eye  of  divine 
mercy,  and  they  all  came  to  life,  and  rose  up.  Afterward 
he  destroyed  the  great  serpent.  On  another  occasion  the 
cattle  and  the  shepherd-boys  were  all  stolen  and  carried 
(AY.  Crishna,  by  a  simple  exertion  of  his  will,  created 
others  so  exactly  like  them,  that  no  one  could  discern  a 
dilferencc.  Once,  when  the  dairy-maids  complained  to  his 
Ibster- mother  that  he  had  been  eating  the  curds  and  drink- 
ing  the  milk,  he  opened  his  mouth  and  asked  her  to  see  if 
there  were  any  curds  there.  She  looked  in,  and,  to  her 
great  astonishment,  beheld  the  whole  universe  in  the  plen- 
itude of  its  maguiliccnce.      [This  alludes  to  their  doctrine 


•fllNDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  63 

that  the  Suprcir.e  Being  contains  the  whole  universe  in 
himself.] 

Once,  seeing  a  festival  in  preparation,  he  inquired  the 
reason.  They  told  him  it  was  in  honour  of  Indra,  by  whose 
pro])itiation  rain  would  descend  to  revive  vegetables,  and 
refresh  man  and  beast.  He  asked  whether  any  rain  fell  in 
those  places  where  men  did  not  propitiate  Indra;  and  he 
received  no  answer.  He  then  told  them  that  rain  fell  by 
the  power- of  an  Ahnighty  Being,  of  whom  Indra  himself 
stood  in  need.  That  good  and  evil,  pleasure  and  pain, 
were  the  ordained  lot  of  each  individual,  and  Indra  had 
nothing  to  do  with  it.  He  therefore  proposed  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  offerings  prepared  for  the  festival  should  be 
given  to  the  Bramins,  another  portion  to  the  cows,  and  the 
remainder  distributed  among  the  poor.  This  proposal  was 
greatly  admired  by  wise  men  in  the  assembly,  but  those 
of  more  narrow  views  deemed  it  improper  that  a  child 
should  presume  to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  the  gods. 
However,  they  were  in  the  end  governed  by  his  advice. 
Indra,  displeased  at  the  loss  of  his  offerings,  sent  a  deluge 
of  rain.  Crishna  told  the  people  to  take  refuge  on  a  moun- 
tain, with  their  flocks  and  herds.  When  they  had  done 
so,  he  lifted  the  mountain  on  his  little  linger  and  held  it 
above  the  storm,  with  as  much  ease  as  if  it  had  been  a 
lotus-blossom. 

In  the  performance  of  tliese  miracles,  he  assumed  no 
other  appearance  than  the  infantine  one,  which  belonged 
to  him  when  he  took  on  himself  the  veil  of  mortality,  lie 
wore  no  panoply  but  the  sacred  shell,  and  the  innocence 
of  a  little  child.  Men,  seeing  the  wonders  he  performed, 
told  Nanda  he  could  not  possibly  be  his  son  ;  that  hi  must 
be  the  Great  Being,  who  is  exempt  from  birth  and  death. 
He  replied:  "Yes,  it  must  indeed  be  so.  When  I  named 
him  Crishna,  on  account  of  his  colour,  the  priest  told  me  he 
must  be  the  God,  who  had  taken  different  bodies,  red, 
white,  yellow,  and  black,  in  his  various  incarnations,  and 
now  he  had  assumed  a  black  colour  again,  since  in  black  all 
colouj's  are  absorbed." 


6-1  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

When  Intlra  discovered  who  was  disguised  in  tlic  form 
of  that  wonderful  cliild,  he  was  abaslied  at  his  own  pre- 
sumption, and  threw  himself  at  his  feet  with  most  submis- 
sive aj^ologies.  Crishna  readily  forgave  him.  The  Gina- 
rers  and  Gandharvas,  who  accompanied  Indra,  threw 
down  a  shower  of  blossoms ;  new  leaves  burst  forth  from 
trees  and  shrubs ;  the  waters  of  the  river  rose  up  with 
transport,  and  sprinkled  rubies  and  diamonds. 

Meanwhile,  a  prophetic  voice  had  told  Cansa  :  "  The 
boy  who  is  destined  to  destroy  thee  is  born,  and  is  now 
living."  As  soon  as  he  heard  that,  he  gave  orders  that  all 
the  male  children  throughout  his  kingdom  should  be  put 
to  death.  Among  the  sculptures  in  the  cave-temple  at 
Elephanta,  is  a  conspicuous  figure  with  a  drawn  sword, 
surrounded  by  slaughtered  infants.  It  is  supposed  to  al- 
lude to  this  part  of  Crishna's  history.  All  methods  taken 
to  destroy  the  divine  child  proved  ineffectual.  The  mes- 
senger, whom  the  king  sent  to  kill  him,  found  him  near 
the  river.  As  he  approached,  he  saw  reflected  in  the  water 
an  image  of  Crishna  radiant  in  celestial  beauty,  and  innu- 
merable Spirits  standing  before  him,  with  their  hands 
joined  in  adoration.  He  immediately  did  the  same,  and 
thus  united  in  their  worship  of  the  incarnate  god :  "0  thou 
Supreme  One  !  thy  essence  is  inscrutable,  but  its  shadow 
is  in  all  bodies,  like  the  image  of  the  sun  reflected  in  vases 
of  water.  If  the  vase  be  broken,  where  is  the  image? 
Yet  the  sun  is  neither  increased  by  the  vases,  or  dimin- 
ished by  their  fracture.  In  like  manner,  thou  art  all  in 
all.  The  understanding  of  finite  man  cannot  reach  thy 
almighty  power.  Well  may  it  escape  the  sight  of  myself 
and  other  mortals,  who  are  a  prey  to  earthly  desires,  when 
the  mightiest  spirits,  even  Brahma  and  Siva,  are  lost  in 
astonishment,  I,  who  know  nothing,  fly  to  thee  for  pro- 
tection. Show  mercy  upon  me,  and  enable  me  to  see  and 
know  thee."  When  Crishna  asked  why  he  seemed  so 
amazed,  he  replied  :  "  O  Sovereign  Lord,  thou  well  knowest 
wliat  I  have  seen  in  the  water."  The  divine  child  merely 
Kmiled,  and  passed  on. 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  65 

lie  knew  the  secret  thoughts  of  all  who  came  into  his 
presence,  and  could  at  once  detect  Evil  Sj)irits  under  any 
disguise  they  might  assume.  A  terrible  bull  with  fiery 
eyes  was  sent  to  destroy  him.  But  he  said  calmly:  "I 
know  what  Evil  Spirit  thou  art  in  that  disguise.  If  any 
disease  makes  thee  thus  frantic,  I  will  cure  thee."  The  fu- 
rious beast  rushed  forward  to  kill  him,  but  Crishna  seized 
him  and  twisted  his  enormous  head  from  his  body.  At 
another  time  he  was  swallowed  by  a  crocodile,  but  h3 
burned  him  so  intolerably^,  that  the  ravenous  animal  threw 
him  up,  and  cast  him  from  his  mouth  unhurt. 

He  is  described  as  a  youth  of  perfect  beauty ;  with 
breast  broad  and  high,  waist  of  elegant  proportions,  grace- 
ful limbs,  a  foot  like  tlie  lotus-blossom,  smooth  skin,  ruby 
lips,  and  a  smile  of  ineffable  sweetness.  Women  left  their 
work  unfinished,  to  run  and  gaze  after  him,  as  he  passed 
by.  In  the  family  of  Nanda,  he  had  for  companions 
young  dairy-maids,  called  Gopias.  In  early  youth,  he 
selected  as  favourites  nine  of  these  damsels,  with  whom 
he  spent  his  leisure  hours  in  dancing  and  playing  on  the 
flute.  Cama,  God  of  Love,  found  no  greater  joy  than 
spending  his  nights  with  them  in  dance  and  song.  Crishna 
played  so  ravishingly,  that  the  animals  gathered  round 
him,  enchanted  by  his  tones.  In  that  beautiful  season 
when  earth  resumes  the  green  livery  of  spring,  and  the 
bow  of  heaven  beams  benediction  on  the  human  race,  he 
peculiarly  delighted  in  music.  One  delightful  evening, 
when  a  warm  sweet  air  breathed  around,  when  the  moon 
was  shining  in  meridian  splendour,  and  Spirits  in  honour 
of  it  clothed  themselves  in  rose-coloured  robes,  with  chains 
of  pearl  and  rubies,  he  wandered  forth  playing  on  his  flute. 
The  waters  stood  still  to  hear  him,  hungry  calves  let  their 
mother's  milk  drop  on  the  ground  while  they  listened,  and 
the  birds  lost  all  power  over  their  wings.  The  Gopias 
all  left  their  occupations  to  hurry  after  those  fascinating 
sounds.  He  advised  them  to  return  home,  and  not  risk 
their  comfort  in  this  world  and  happiness  in  the  next,  by 
neglect  or  ill  conduct   toward  their  husbands ;  since  the 

:'0L.    I.— 0* 


d6  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Vedas,  which  are  the  very  words  of  Brahma,  declare  that 
a  husband,  however  defective  or  criminal,  is  in  the  place 
of  the  Supreme  to  his  wife.  They  replied  that  when 
frenzy  seized  the  mind,  all  duties  and  all  worldly  motives 
were  forgotten  ;  that  intoxicated  as  they  were  by  the 
sound  of  his  flute,  it  was  in  vain  to  preach  to  them  duty 
to  their  husbands ;  that  when  he  ordered  them  to  leave 
him,  their  feet  would  not  move,  but  if  he  called  them  to- 
ward him,  they  flew.  So  ardent  and  concentrated  was 
their  affection,  that  their  souls  became  illuminated,  and 
they  comprehended  who  Crishna  was.  Tliey  told  him 
they  well  knew  he  was  the  Supreme  Being,  and  that  who- 
ever would  be  united  to  him  must  renounce  all  other  con- 
nections, as  they  did;  that  he  might  separate  himself  from 
them  corporeally,  if  he  would,  but  he  could  not  escape 
from  their  hearts  and  minds,  which  would  remain  forever 
fixed  on  him.  Perceiving  them  thus  sincerely  inflamed, 
and  hurried  away  from  themselves  by  the  ardour  of  desire, 
he  took  each  of  them  in  his  arms,  and  treated  them  all 
with  equal  tenderness.  All  the  transport  and  happiness 
to  be  found  in  the  world  were  in  the  hearts  of  the  Gopias. 
They  exclaimed :  "  0  happy  trees  of  this  wood,  under 
whose  thick  shade  Crishna  delights  to  slumber.  Honoured 
above  all  animals  are  these,  which  the  Almighty  himself 
leads  to  pasture.  Happy  above  all  is  the  flute,  which  rests 
forever  on  his  divine  lip,  from  which  he  produces  those 
heavenly  sounds  that  steal  away  the  souls  of  Sooras  and 
Assooras.  How  blest  are  we,  whom  he  condescends  to 
love!"  When  Crishna  promised  always  to  continue  his 
kindness  to  them,  they  became  elated  with  the  happiness 
and  elevation  of  the  fourteen  spheres  of  the  universe. 
They  all  rose  uji,  and  taking  hold  of  his  hands  began  to 
dance.  His  form  multiplied  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  his  partners,  and  he  gave  his  hand  to  each.  Every  one 
believed  he  was  close  by  her  side,  and  all  their  eyes  were 
directed  toward  him  alone.  If  one  became  fatigued,  she 
Bat  down,  liolding  his  hand  and  Itjoking  toward  him,  or 
Btood  with  her  arm  round  his  neck,  leaning  on  his  shoulder 


HINDOSTAN,   OR   INDIA.  67 

in  the  most  graceful  and  afTectionate  manner.  Brahma, 
Siva,  and  subordinate  Deities  came  as  spectators,  and  of- 
fered all  manner  of  flowers.  Many  of  the  blossoms  fell  to 
the  ground,  from  the  bosoms  of  the  dancers,  and  bees,  at- 
tracted by  their  fragrance,  swarmed  around  them.  The 
listener  who  once  came  within  sound  of  that  flute,  or  heard 
the  musical  tinkling  of  the  dancers'  feet,  was  unable  to 
depart,  nor  could  the  birds  stir  a  wing.  After  a  thousand 
sports,  they  all  went  to  bathe,  and  renewed  their  caresses 
in  tlie  river  Jumna.  The  enjoyment  of  Crishna  with  the 
Gopias,  and  of  the  Gopias  with  Crishna,  is  a  mystery,  and 
cannot  be  described. 

Causa  heard  tlie  fame  of  this  wonder-working  youth, 
and  tried  various  means  to  entice  him  to  his  palace,  that 
he  might  employ  him  in  some  task  sure  to  end  in  his  de- 
struction. Crishna  always  eluded  his  snares,  till  he  knew 
the  predestined  time  had  arrived  for  him  to  kill  the  tyrant. 
He  then  quitted  his  pastoral  life,  and  returned  to  the  place 
of  his  birth.  After  conquering  in  all  maimer  of  perils, 
contrived  by  the  jealousy  of  the  king  and  the  malignity 
of  wicked  Spirits,  he  at  last  attacked  Causa,  tore  the  crown 
from  Ills  head,  and  dragged  him  a  long  way  on  the  ground 
by  his  hair.  While  thus  dragged  along,  the  soul  of  the 
tyrant  became  liberated  of  the  three  worlds;  for  whether 
sleeping  or  waking,  he  had  never,  for  one  moment,  been 
able  to  refrain  from  thinking  of  his  predestined  destroyer, 
and  at  the  moment  of  death  he  had  beatific  visions  of  him; 
for  whoever,  constantly  and  sincerely,  whether  in  love  or  en- 
mity, bent  his  heart  toward  the  Deity,  incarnated  as  he  was 
in  that  human  form,  was  sure  to  obtain  liberation. 

When  Crishna  heard  the  lamentations  of  the  king's 
wives  and  brothers,  he  pitied  them,  and  advised  them  to 
strive  for  resignation  to  the  unavoidable  decrees  of  fate. 
Then  he  went  to  the  place  where  his  father  and  mother 
were  imprisoned,  fell  at  their  feet,  and  said:  "Be  happy  in 
the  life  of  that  son,  for  whose  sake  his  eartldy  parents  have 
suffered  so  much  danger  and  distress."  At  that  moment, 
they  knew  he  was  the  Almighty,  and  worshipped  him  with 


68  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    lOEAS. 

prayers  and  praises.  When  he  perceived  that  they  knew 
him  to  be  the  Universal  Lord,  while  so  much  remained  for 
him  to  fulfil  as  an  avatar  on  this  earth,  he  again  plunged 
them  into  forgetfulness,  so  that  they  once  more  supposed 
him  to  be  their  son.  As  his  youth  had  been  passed  among 
shepherds,  they  deemed  it  necessary  to  commence  an  educa- 
tion for  him,  suited  to  the  caste  of  Cshatryas,  or  rajahs,  to 
which  he  belonged.  They  accordingly  procured  a  learned 
Bramin  to  teach  him  all  the  Vedas.  To  save  appearances, 
he  staid  awhile  with  his  tutor,  though  in  reality  he  learned 
the  whole  circle  of  sciences  in  one  day  and  one  night.  At 
parting  with  his  teacher,  he  requested  him  to  ask  whatever 
boon  he  most  desired.  He  replied:  "Above  all  things,  I 
desire  to  have  my  two  dead  sons  restored  to  life."  Crishna 
assured  him  it  should  be  done.  He  descended  to  the 
abodes  of  departed  souls,  summoned  the  god  of  those 
regions,  and  demanded  the  two  sons  of  his  tutor.  His 
commands  were  obeyed  with  profound  submission.  He 
restored  the  .young  men  to  life,  and  brought  them  to  their 
father.  He  was  constantly  performing  similar  miracles  of 
beneficence.  He  lulled  tempests,  cured  lepers,  and  restored 
the  old  and  crippled  to  youth  and  beauty.  His  mother 
having  expressed  a  wish  to  see  her  infant  sons,  who  had 
been  murdered  by  command  of  their  cruel  uncle,  he  went 
to  the  regions  of  departed  spirits,  and  brought  them  to  her. 
As  soon  as  she  saw  them,  the  milk  began  to  flow  in  her 
breasts.  When  the  babes  had  tasted  of  the  milk,  and 
Crishna  had  passed  his  hand  over  them,  an  eagle  descended 
from  above  and  bore  them  up  to  Paradise,  in  sight  of  all 
the  people. 

The  Coros  were  enemies  of  the  Yadavas,  and  persecuted 
them  greatly.  Crishna  conquered  them  in  a  great  battle, 
and  placed  the  rightful  prince  on  the  throne.  But  though 
lie  fuHilled  his  destined  mission  in  fighting  against  oppres- 
sors, his  prevailing  characteristics  were  benevolence  and 
tenderness.  His  kindness  was  freely  extended  to  all  If 
he  visit(!d  a  pious  rajah,  who  olfcred  him  chains  of  gold 
and  strings  of  finest  pearl,  he  was  often  at  the  same  mo- 


HTNDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  69 

mcnt  in  some  humble  sliecl  with  a  devout  Bramin,  who 
was  too  poor  to  offer  him  anything  but  fruit  and  flowers. 
He  gave  no  preference  to  one  over  the  other,  knowing  that 
their  religious  merits  were  equal,  though  their  external 
conditions  were  so  very  different. 

It  is  said  that  Bhrcegoo,  a  celebrated  saint,  wishing  to 
test  his  divinity,  kicked  him,  to  see  whether  it  w^ould  make 
him  angry.  Crishna  stooped  and  examined  his  foot  with 
the  utmost  tenderness.  "  This  breast  of  mine  is  extremely 
hard,"  said  he.  "  You  surely  must  have  hurt  yourself." 
Bhreegoo,  weeping  with  joy,  exclaimed:  "This  must  in- 
deed be  the  true  Lord  of  the  three  worlds," 

To  certain  princes,  who  bowed  low  before  him,  he  de- 
clared that  he  took  more  pleasure  in  repentant  sinners, 
than  he  did  in  stainless  devotees,  who  had  passed  their 
whole  lives  in  austerity  and  prayer. 

In  all  the  concerns  of  life,  he  strictly  obeyed  the  injunc- 
tions of  the  Vedas.  Morning,  noon,  and  evening,  he  per- 
formed the  prescribed  ablutions  and  prayers.  He  washed 
the  feet  of  Bramins  wdth  all  humility,  and  distributed 
among  them  cows  with  gilded  horns.  He  neglected  none 
of  the  purifications  appointed  for  actions  proper  to  human 
nature,  which  are  every  day  committed.  If  it  be  asked 
how  that  divine  essence  could  have  any  need  of  purifica- 
tion, the  answer  is,  that  it  was  by  reason  of  his  material 
form.  He  took  part  in  the  public  business  of  the  Yadavas, 
and  when  he  sat  in  council  Avith  them,  it  would  be  degra- 
ding to  that  assembly  to  compare  it  to  the  moon  and  stars 
shining  in  midnight  glory.  After  performing  his  public 
and  private  duties,  musicians  and  singers  were  introduced, 
and  every  kind  of  innocent  and  elegant  diversion  beguiled 
the  remaining  hours  of  the  day. 

He  lived  in  the  midst  of  beauty  and  magnificence.  His 
carriage,  studded  with  jewels,  glittered  like  the  sun;  and 
when  he  rode  forth,  women  mounted  on  the  roofs  of  the 
houses,  to  gaze  after  it  as  long  as  it  was  possible.  The 
father-in-law  of  Cansa  had  solemnly  sworn  to  revenge  his 
death,  and   he   accordingly  attacked   the  city  of  Matra 


70  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Crishna,  to  save  the  inhabitants  from  all  danger,  called  up 
an  island  from  the  ocean,  and  transported  them  all  thither. 
By  his  command,  Visvakarma,  the  architect  of  his  celestial 
Paradise,  constructed  a  wonderful  city  called  Dwarka. 
The  walls  were  of  gold,  and  the  pavements  glittered  with 
precious  stones.  The  houses  were  pure  crystal,-  supported 
by  pillars  of  coral,  with  canopies  of  golden  cloth,  festooned 
with  strings  of  pearl.  The  apartments  were  illuminated 
with  resplendent  rubies,  and  over  the  roofs  floated  clouds 
of  fragrant  smoke,  from  the  constant  burning  of  aromatics. 
Numerous  temples  towered  toward  the  sky,  and  incense 
from  their  altars  perfumed  the  whole  atmosphere.  Learned 
Bramins  were  everywhere  chanting  the  Vedas,  like  intox- 
icated bees  buzzing  round  aromatic  Nenuphar.  Peacocks 
sported  among  the  trees,  and  nightingales  sung.  In  the 
garden  was  a  river,  whose  banks  were  all  gold  and  jewels. 
It  appeared  red,  from  the  reflection  of  the  rubies,  but  it 
was  perfectly  white.  It  was  the  \Yater  of  Life.  In  the 
most  splendid  of  the  palaces  lived  his  first  wife  Bakmini, 
who  was  an  incarnation  of  his  celestial  consort  Lacshmi. 
In  this  city  dwelt  Crishna,  with  his  sixteen  thousand 
wives,  like  lightning  in  a  cloud.  Beautiful  children  played 
in  the  courts,  and  graceful  slave-girls  attended  on  their 
mistresses.  When  Nareda,  god  of  music,  visited  this  Pa- 
radise, Crishna  rose  from  his  seat  and  stepped  forward  to 
welcome  him.  He  caused  water  to  be  brought,  and  him- 
self washed  the  feet  of  his  guest,  pouring  the  remainder  of 
the  water  on  his  own  head.  Nareda  was  oppressed  by 
such  marks  of  distinction,  and  replied  reverently:  "  If  it  be 
thy  august  will  to  perform  these  services  for  me,  it  is  as  a 
father  and  mother  perform  services  for  their  children,  out 
of  their  own  voluntary  good  wilh  No  one  can  measure 
thy  mercy  and  benevolence.  Thy  avatar  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  good  and  punishing  the  wickel. 
Men,  who  are  buried  in  the  pit  of  their  passions,  have  no 
possibility  of  escape  from  their  control,  except  by  thy 
mercy  in  consenting  to  be  born  into  this  transient  world." 
Having  curiosity  to  know  whether  Crishna  lived  with  his 


IIINDOSTAN',    OR    INDIA.  71 

sixteen  tliousaial  wives  in  rotation,  or  was  alwaj^s  present 
with  each  of  tliein,  he  resolved  to  take  the  lirst  opportunity 
of  going  into  their  various  liouses.  In  one,  he  found 
Crishna  at  a  banquet;  in  another,  listening  to  the  Poura- 
nas ;  in  another,  he  had  set  the  women  to  quarrelling,  and 
amused  himself  with  loolving  on;  in  another,  he  was  lis- 
tening to  the  songs  of  beautiful  slave-girls;  in  another, 
giving  orders  for  digging  a  well ;  in  another,  distributing 
milch  cows  to  the  poor.  Go  as  quickly  as  he  would,  he 
found  Crishna  everywhere  present.  Each  of  his  wives 
thought  he  preferred  no  one  to  herself,  and  that  he  wished 
for  no  other.  [This  is  probably  an  allegorical  allusion  to 
the  intimate  union  of  Deity  with  multifarious  forms  of  the 
universe.] 

After  the  Coros  were  conquered,  the  rightful  prince  of 
the  Yadavas  reigned  thirty-six  years  in  peace  and  pros- 
perity. Then  came  calamities  and  bad  omens  of  eveiy 
kind.  A  black  circle  surrounded  the  moon,  and  the 
sun  was  darkened  at  noonday;  the  sky  rained  fire  and 
ashes;  those  animals  which  it  was  reckoned  fortunate 
to  meet  on  the  right  hand  were  met  on  the  left;  flames 
burned  dusky  and  livid;  demons  carried  away  the  orna- 
ments of  the  women  and  the  weapons  of  the  men,  and  no 
one  could  impede  them  ;  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  thousands 
of  figures  were  seen  skirmishing  in  the  air;  Crishna's 
horses  took  fright,  and  ran  away  with  his  carriage  into  the 
pathless  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  fxr  be_yond  the  ken  of 
mortals;  Spirits  hovered  in  the  air,  wailing,  and  crying 
out,  "Arise  ye  and  flee!"  Crishna  knew  that  these  pro- 
digies foreboded  the  extinction  of  the  Yadavas,  and  his 
own  exit  from  his  material  form.  He  remembered  the 
prophecy  concerning  himself,  "0  Crishna,  take  care  of  the 
sole  of  thy  foot."  He  seated  himself  in  a  jungle,  full  of 
melancholy  thoughts,  and  summoned  all  his  force,  mental 
and  corporeal,  while  his  spirit  stood  ready  to  depart.  A 
hunter,  seeing  him  there,  mistook  him  for  an  animal,  and 
discharged  an  arrow,  which  pierced  him  in  the  foot.  Im- 
mediately a  great  light  enveloped  the  earth,  and  illumined 


72  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

the  whole  expanse  of  heaven.  Crishna,  attended  by  Ce 
lestial  Spirits,  and  luminous  as  on  that  night  when  he  was 
born  in  the  house  of  Vasudeva,  pursued,  by  his  own  light, 
the  journey  between  earth  and  heaven,  to  the  bright  Para- 
dise whence  he  had  descended.  All  men  saw  him,  and 
exclaimed,  "Lo,  Crishna's  soul  ascends  its  native  skies!" 

One  of  the  titles  of  Crishna  is  "  Pardoner  of  Sins ;" 
another  is  "Liberator  from  the  Serpent  of  Death."  In 
allusion  to  this  last  title,  and  likewise  to  his  death-wound 
in  the  foot,  the  image  of  Crishna  is  sculptured  in  their 
ancient  temples,  sometimes  wreathed  in  the  folds  of  a  ser- 
pent, that  is  biting  his  foot,  sometimes  treading  victoriously 
on  the  head  of  a  serpent. 

Hindoo  theology  is  everywhere  intimately  connected 
with  astronomy.  Each  planet  had  its  presiding  Spirit, 
supposed  to  be  interested  in  the  affairs  of  men,  and  there- 
fore to  be  propitiated  by  prayers  and  offerings.  In  the 
following  prayer,  Crishna  is  addressed  as  the  Spirit  of  the 
Sun :  "  Be  auspicious  to  my  lays,  O  Crishna,  thou  only 
god  of  the  seven  heavens,  who  swayest  the  universe 
through  the  immensity  of  space  and  matter.  0- universal 
and  resplendent  Sun !  Thou  mighty  governor  of  the 
heavens  ;  thou  sovereign  regulator  of  the  connected 
whole;  thou  sole  and  universal  deity  of  mankind;  thou 
gracious  and  supreme  Spirit ;  my  noblest  and  most  happy 
inspiration  is  thy  praise  and  glory.  Thy  power  I  will 
praise,  for  thou  art  my  sovereign  Lord,  whose  bright  image 
continually  foi'ccs  itself  on  my  attentive,  eager  imagination. 
Thou  art  the  Being  to  whom  heroes  pray  in  perils  of  war; 
nor  are  their  supplications  vain,  when  thus  they  pray  ; 
whether  it  be  when  thou  illuminest  the  eastern  region 
with  thy  orient  light,  when  in  thy  meridian  splendour,  or 
when  thou  majestically  descendest  in  the  west." 

All  the  Hindoo  avatars  are  painted  bluish-black,  or  dark 
azure.  In  allusion  to  Crishna's  being  the  Spirit  of  the 
Sun,  his  col(Mir  is  called  "  the  brilliant  pupil  of  the  eye  of 
the  universe."  He  is  represented  as  more  splendidly  dressed 
than  any  of  the  avataivs.     lie  wears  robes  of  golden  yeb 


HINDOSTAN",    OR   INDIA.  73 

low,  with  a  coronet  on  liis  head,  containing  a  jewel  of  in- 
estimable value,  lie  is  adorned  with  garlands  of  flowers, 
and  rich  strings  of  pearls.  He  is  the  favourite  deity  of  Hin- 
doo women,  who  are  enamoured  with  the  accounts  of  his 
beauty  and  tenderness  of  heart.  Throughout  India,  he  is 
worshipped  with  enthusiastic  devotion.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  Yishnu  himself,  perfectly  and  entirely  incarnated 
in  a  human  form ;  whereas  other  avatars  were  only  en- 
dowed with  portions  of  his  divinity.  They  ascribe  to  him 
all  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  Supreme  Greater  and 
Euler  of  the  Universe. 

In  the  Bhagavat  Geeta,  Crishna  is  represented  as  saying 
to  his  friend  and  disciple  Arjun  :  "Both  thou  and  I  have 
passed  through  many  births.  Mine  are  known  unto  me, 
but  thou  knowest  not  of  thine.  Although  I  am  not  in  my 
nature  subject  to  birth  or  deca}^,  and  am  the  Lord  of  all 
created  beings,  j^et  having  command  over  my  own  nature, 
I  am  made  evident  by  my  own  power;  and  as  often  as 
there  is  a  decline  of  virtue,  and  an  insurrection  of  vice  and 
injustice  in  the  world,  I  make  myself  evident.  Thus  I 
appear  from  age  to  age,  for  the  preservation  of  the  just, 
the  destruction  of  the  wicked,  and  the  establishment  of 
virtue." 

"I  am  the  creation  and  the  dissolution  of  the  whole 
universe.  There  is  nothing  greater  than  I.  All  things 
hang  on  me,  even  as  precious  gems  on  a  string.  I  am 
moisture  in  the  water,  light  in  the  sun  and  moon,  inspira- 
tion in  the  Vedas,  sound  in  the  atmosphere,  fj-agrance  in 
the  earth,  human  nature  in  mankind,  glory  in  the  source 
of  light.  I  am  all  things;  I  am  Life.  I  am  the  eternal 
seed  of  all  nature.  I  am  the  understanding  of  the  wise, 
the  glory  of  the  great,  the  strength  of  the  strong.  I  am 
free  from  lust  and  anger;  and  in  animals  I  am  desire,  regu- 
lated by  moral  fitness." 

"He  who  adores  with  sincere  faith  any  object  whatso- 
ever, infallibly  obtains  from  me  the  object  of  his  belief. 
Firm  in  his  faith,  he  seeks  by  his  own  means  such  or  such 
a  fixvour,  and  I  grant  the  object  of  his  desires.    Worshippers 
Vol.  I. — 7  d 


74  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  ilie  inferior  Deities  are  with  the  inferior  Deities ;  wor- 
shippers of  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  aj'e  with  tlie  souls 
of  their  ancestors;  they  who  sacrifice  to  Spirits  are  with 
those  Spirits.  Bat  these  fruits,  sought  by  men  but  little 
endowed  with  science,  are  limited  in  their  duration.  Those 
who  worship  the  inferior  Deities  with  faith,  worship  me 
also  ;  but  not  in  the  true  manner.  I  enjoy  their  sacrifices. 
I  am  the  Lord  to  whom  return  all  the  works  of  ]'eligion. 
]3Ut  they  do  not  know  me  according  to  the  truth  ;  there- 
fore they  fall  back  into  the  world  of  mortals.  The  igno- 
rant believe  me  visible,  whilst  I  am  invisible.  They  do 
not  know  my  superior,  imperishable  nature.  I  am  ani- 
mated with  equal  benevolence  toward  all  beings.  I  know 
neither  hatred  nor  predilection.  But  those  who  adore  me 
devoutly  are  in  me,  and  I  in  them.  Even  he  who  has  led 
a  bad  life,  if  he  adores  me  without  adoring  any  other  thing, 
is  to  be  reputed  virtuous.  It  is  entirely  accomplished.  He 
will  immediately  have  a  just  soul,  and  obtain  eternal  tran- 
quillity. Have  faith  in  me.  No  one  who  worships  me  can 
perish.  Forgetting  all  other  duties,  address  thyself  to  me 
as  the  only  asylum.     I  will  deliver  thee  from  all  sin." 

The  same  book  declares:  "Crishna  is  at  all  times  present 
everywhere;  just  as  fire,  though  concealed,  is  always  pres- 
ent in  wood.  Whoever  is  night  and  day  thinking  of  him 
becomes  exalted  above  all  the  three  worlds.  AVhoever,  at 
the  moment  of  expiring,  shall  retain  him  in  remembrance, 
will  infallibly  be  thrice  blessed." 

Hindoo  Sacred  Writings  abound  with  allusions  to  an 
age  of  innocence  and  bliss,  long  passed  away,  and  prophesy 
an  age  of  holiness  and  happiness,  that  will  come  at  the  end 
of  all  things.  Strabo,  the. Greek  geographer,  records  that 
a  philosopher,  named  Oncsicritus,  was  sent  into  India,  I'y 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  learn  the  doctrines  and  mode  of 
life  of  the  hermit  sages  in  that  region.  He  found  a  Bra- 
niin,  nam('(l  ('alamis,  who  taught  him  that  in  the  beginning 
of  th(!  woi'ld,  milk,  wine,  lioney  and  oil  flowed  sjiontane- 
ously  from  fountains,  and  peace  and  plenty  reigned  over 
all  nature.     I'ut  men  having;  made  bad  use  of  tliis  felicitv. 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  75 

the  Creator  deprived  them  of  it,  and  condemned  them  to 
labour  for  subsistence. 

In  consequence  of  the  disorders  produced  by  Evil  Spirits, 
leagued  with  men,  Vishnu  was  obliged  to  appear  on  earth, 
at  various  epochs,  in  different  forms;  as  a  fish,  a  lion,  a 
dwarf,  and  holy  sages  among  men.  His  eighth  incarnation 
in  Crishna  was  the  most  perfect  that  has  yet  been ;  but 
more  glorious  still  will  be  his  tenth  and  last  avatar.  Their 
Sacred  Books  declare  that  in  the  last  days,  when  the  fixed 
stars  have  all  apparently  returned  to  the  point  whence  they 
started,  at  the  beginning  of  all  things,  in  the  month  Scor- 
pio, Vishnu  will  appear  among  mortals,  in  the  form  of  an 
armed  warrior,  riding  a  winged  white  horse.  In  one  hand, 
he  will  carry  a  scimetar,  "  blazing  like  a  comet,"  to  destroy 
all  the  impure,  who  shall  then  dwell  on  the  flice  of  the 
earth.  In  the  other  hand,  he  will  carry  a  large  shinino- 
ring,  to  signify  that  the  great  circle  of  Yugs,  or  Ages,  is 
completed,  and  that  the  end  has  come.  '  At  his  approach, 
the  sun  and  moon  will  be  darkened,  the  earth  will  trem- 
ble, and  the  stars  fall  from  the  firmament.  The  great  ser- 
pent Seshanaga  will  pour  forth  flames  from  his  thousand 
mouths,  which  will  set  the  universe  on  fire,  consume  the 
spheres,  and  all  living  creatures.  Tlie  white  horse  is  repre- 
sented as  standing  with  one  foot  raised.  When  he  stamps 
it  upon  the  earth,  it  is  predicted  that  the  dissolution  of  na- 
ture will  take  place.  Some  Oriental  scholars  consider  this 
as  an  astronomical  allegory  ;  a  white  horse  being  the  uni- 
versal symbol  of  the  sun  among  ancient  nations. 

A  Sacred  Book,  called  the  Barta  Shastra,  contains  tho 
following  prophecy:  "At  the  end  of  the  Cali  Yug,  a  Bra- 
min  will  be  born,  who  will  understand  the  Divine  Writ- 
ings, and  all  the  sciences,  without  spending  any  more  time 
to  learn  them  than  is  sufficient  to  pronounce  a  single  word. 
They  will  give  him  a  name  signifying  He  who  excellently 
understands  all  things.  By  conversing  with  those  of  his 
own  race,  he  will  purge  the  earth  of  sinners;  a  thing  im- 
possible to  any  other  than  himself.  He  will  cause  justice 
and  truth  to  reign  everywhere,  and  will  subject  the  uni- 


76  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

verse  to  the  Bramias.  When  he  becomes  old,  he  will  re- 
tire into  the  desert  and  suffer  penance.  He  will  confirm 
the  Bramins  in  virtue  and  truth,  and  keep  the  four  castes 
within  the  bounds  prescribed  by  Sacred  Laws.  Then  will 
the  First  Age  return  again.  All  the  virtues  will  march  in 
the  train  of  truth  ;  and  the  Light  of  the  Divine  Writings 
will  be  diffused  everywhere.  The  earth  will  be  inebriated 
with  prosperity  and  gladness,  and  all  people  enjoy  ineffable 
delights." 

So  strongly  is  this  hope  of  a  blissful  future  impressed  on 
the  minds  of  the  people,  that  thc}^  commemorate  the 
prophecy  by  a  festival,  during  which  they  saci"ifice  a  sheep, 
and  repeat,  with  a  loud  voice:  "When  will  the  Helper 
come?     When  will  the  Deliverer  appear?" 

The  more  spiritual  portion  of  the  Vedas  represent  ab- 
sorption in  God  as  the  great  end  and  aim  of  all  human 
exertions ;  and  this  absorption  is  to  be  attained  by  pure  life, 
devout  contemplation,  and  a  complete  withdrawal  of  the 
senses  from  all  outward  things.  It  attaches  little  value  to 
works  in  themselves,  and  none  at  all,  unless  performed 
with  purity  of  intention,  and  a  heart  devoted  to  God. 

But  the  less  spiritual  portion  of  the  Vedas  prescribe 
many  works  and  ceremonies,  and  promises  appropriate 
rewards  in  Paradise  for  each ;  though  it  represents  as  un- 
wise those  who  prefer  such  rewards  to  the  eternal  beatitude 
gained  by  pious  sages.  It  is  said : — "  For  a  spirit  self- 
interested  as  thine,  there  is  no  other  means  of  salvation 
than  the  observance  of  rites.  Continue  to  practise  them 
as  long  as  you  feel  a  desire  to  enjoy  the  rewards  they  can 
procure.  It  is  the  way  to  obtain  the  recompense  you  ex- 
pect for  your  works." 

These  two  as{)ects  of  the  Vedas  produced  theological 
schools  of  0{)positc  tendency.  The  word  hnrma^  in  the  sig- 
nification of  which  they  include  loonls  and  tlioiiglits  as  well 
as  loorks  of  the  body,  has  given  rise  to  endless  disputations. 
A  sect  founded  by  Djaimini  is  called  Purva;  sometimes 
Karma  Mimansa,  or  Investigators  of  the  doctrine  of 
Works,  because  they  occuny  themselves  nuicli  with  prov 


HINDOSTAX,    Oil   INDIA.  77 

ing,  both  from  reason  and  the  Vedas,  the  efficacy  of  the 
works  and  ceremonies  of  religion.  Their  teachers  define 
with  great  exactness  how  these  works  ought  to  be  per- 
formed, and  what  degree  of  reward  must  follow  each,  by 
inevitable  necessity.  They  present  religion  like  a  sum  in 
arithmetic  ;  so  many  merits  subtracted  from  so  many  faults, 
and  so  much  of  punishment  still  remains  due.  This  sect 
not  only  allows  the  killing  of  animals  for  food,  but  pre- 
scribes it,  provided  a  portion  be  lirst  offered  to  the  gods. 
They  elevate  the  worship  of  the  symbolical  deities  to  great 
importance,  and  thus  express  the  popular  tendency  to  Po- 
lytheism, or  the  worship  of  many  distinct  gods,  rather  than 
Pantheism,  or  the  worship  of  all  things  in  One  God,  Some 
of  this  sect  consider  works  of  expiation  as  efficacious  only 
in  cases  of  involuntary  sins ;  others  think  the  testimony 
of  the  Yedas  prove  them  to  be  effectual  in  case  of  those 
that  are  voluntary. 

An  extreme  reaction  from  this  tendency  to  overvalue 
works,  and  overload  religion  with  ceremonies,  exists  in  the 
mystical  sect  called  Vedantins,  said  to  be  founded  by 
Vyasa,  collector  of  the  Vedas.  In  common  with  all  Hin- 
doos, they  prescribe  penances  as  aids  to  holiness,  such  as 
painful  postures,  holding  the  breath  while  repeating  Om, 
&;c.  But  they  discountenance  those  terrible  bodily  inflic- 
tions, to  which  the  popular  mind  of  liindostan  is  so 
exceedingly  prone,  and  dwell  more  on  the  force  of  will, 
by  which  a  holy  man  subdues  his  passions  and  directs 
his  thoughts.  They  represent  the  worship  of  the  symboli- 
cal deities  as  useful  for  those  who  cannot  rise  above  it ;  but 
speak  almost  disdainfully  of  those  who  consider  pleasure 
and  power,  and  the  joys  of  Paradise,  a  desirable  recom- 
pense for  their  multitude  of  works.  Their  favourite  theme 
is  the  surpassing  excellence  and  supreme  beatitude  of  that 
state  of  absorption,  in  which  the  soul  of  man  floats  serenely 
above  all  desire  for  reward,  all  reliance  upon  works,  all 
necessity  of  instruction  from  the  Vedas. 

This  spiritual  reaction  was  nievitably  produced  by  the 
popular  tendency  to  bury  religious  feeling  under  a  mass  of 
Vol.  I.— 7* 


78  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

mechanical  ceremonies;  and  everywhere  there  is  a  class  of 
minds  ready  to  carry  principles  to  an  extreme  result.  The 
Vedantins  declared  works  insufficient  for  salvation  ;  and 
straightway  other  teachers  arose,  who  pronounced  works  not 
only  insufficient,  but  pernicious  ;  real  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  holiness,  and  therefore  to  be  utterly  neglected  and  des- 
pised by  all  true  saints.  Endless  were  the  debates  on  this 
question  of  faith  and  works.  Traces  of  them  are  every- 
where conspicuous  in  their  sacred  literature.  "  It  is  ne- 
cessary to  act,"  says  the  author  of  the  Bhagavat  Geeta, 
"because  otherwise  the  body  could,  not  be  nourished.  It 
is  necessary  to  act,  because  God,  in  creating  the  world,  has 
arranged  it  in  such  a  manner  that  beings  reciprocally  sub- 
sist by  their  works  and  actions.  But  he  who  acts  without 
regard  to  reward,  without  any  other  motive  than  duty, 
without  any  end  in  view  but  God,  he  is  the  perfect  man." 
"  The  saint,  who  has  purified  his  soul,  who  has  subdued 
his  senses,  whose  soul  is  The  Soul  of  All  Beings,  is  not 
sullied  by  the  practice  of  works.  He  never  imagines  it  is 
himself  who  acts.  In  seeing,  hearing,  touching,  breathing, 
eating,  walking,  sleeping,  talking,  in  opening  his  eyes,  or 
in  shutting  them,  he  says  to  himself,  'These  are  the  senses, 
not  myself,  which  are  occupied  with  external  things.'  He 
attributes  his  works  to  God,  and  can  thus  act  without  stain, 
as  the  leaf  of  the  lotus  is  not  stained  by  the  water-drops 
that  fall  upon  it.  In  renouncing  the  fruit  of  works,  he 
obtains  tranquillity." 

The  sects  above  mentioned  are  considered  orthodox,  be- 
cause they  all  ackn'owledge  themselves  bound  by  the  Ve- 
das,  and  each  strives  to  sustain  its  position  by  texts  thence 
derived.  But  many  causes  were  at  work  to  give  birth  to 
lieretical  opinions.  In  the  first  place,  the  Holy  Books 
themselves  declared  that  man  might  arrive  at  a  state  of 
holiness,  in  which  pcrj)etual  inward  revelations  rendered 
the  Vedas  uniu^cessary ;  and  the  Vedantins  had  spread 
abroad  the  idea  by  reiterated  assertions.  In  the  next  place, 
rational  investigations  and  philosophical  theories  are  al- 
ways going  on,  more  or  less  openly,  by  the  side  of  theo- 


HINDOSTAX,    OR    INDIA.  79 

logical  speculations.  But  stronger  than  both  these  causes 
was  an  increasing  jealousy  and  aversion  to  the*  hereditary 
prirsthood.  In  the  beginning,  it  is  probable  that  any  very 
lioly  hermit  could  become  a  priest:  and  when  the  office 
was  first  made  hereditary,  every  Bramin  was  professedly 
a  rehgious  man,  and  felt  bound  to  devote  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  to  contemplation  in  the  forest.  But  as  the  caste 
grew  numerous  and  wealthy,  many  of  them  were  not 
priests,  and  very  few  devoted  their  declining  years  to  as- 
cetic practices.  Thus  there  were  many  Bramins  who  were 
not  saints,  and  man}^  renowned  saints  who  were  not  al- 
lowed to  become  Bramins,  The  possession  of  almost  un- 
limited authority  had  its  usual  effect  to  produce  selfishness, 
arrogance,  and  oppression;  and  though  there  were  alwa^ys 
good  and  great  men  among  the  Bramins,  many  disgraced 
their  high  calling  by  utter  abandonment  to  vice.  Still, 
however  degraded  their  characters,  holy  and  learned  men 
of  the  other  high  castes  were  bound  to  submit  to  their  au- 
thority, and  treat  them  Avith  the  utmost  reverence.  The 
populace,  immersed  in  ignorance,  and  spell-bound  by 
sacred  traditions,  considered  disobedience  to  a  Bramin  as 
the  sum  total  of  sin,  and  tliought  no  method  so  sure  to 
open  the  Gates  of  Paradise  for  themselves  as  to  bestow 
propert}^  on  members  of  that  consecrated  caste.  In  such  a 
state  of  things,  any  doctrine  that  undermined  their  exclu- 
sive privileges  would  of  course  find  adherents. 

A  school  of  rationalists  appeared  in  Hindostan,  many 
centuries  ago,  called  Sankhya  ;  a  word  signifying  In- 
telligence, Reason.  They  deny  the  authority  of  the  Vedas ; 
urging  that  the  command  to  sacrifice  animals  cannot  be 
of  divine  origin,  because  it  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  be- 
nevolence. They  reject  the  doctrine  of  God  everywhere 
present  »?  Nature;  and  maintain  that  Nature,  though  an 
emanation  fi'om  God,  is  an  entirely  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent principle,  not  created,  but  containing  within  herself 
the  laws  that  regulate  all  her  motions.  This  theory  of 
two  principles,  God  and  Nature,  is  called  hy  philosophers 
Dualism. 


80  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

They  bold  the  common  opinion  that  true  holiness  and 
happiness  are  to  be  obtained  only  by  withdrawing  the 
senses  entirely  from  external  things;  but  they  assert  this 
can  be  accomplished  by  reason,  self-control,  and  con- 
templation, without  aid  from  the  Vedas.  T'hey  do  not 
deny  the  existence  of  subordinate  deities,  but  represent 
them  as  beings  very  inferior  to  human  saints,  who  have 
freed  themselves  from  nature  by. contemplation  and  virtue. 
These  rationalists  separate  into  two  sects;  one  diverging 
from  orthodox  opinions  more  widely  than  the  other.  The 
ultra  school  do  not  believe  in  One  Supreme  Soul,  but  in  a 
multitude  of  souls,  each  enjoying  independent  existence. 
They  say  there  is  no  other  revelation  than  the  wisdom  of 
good  men,  which  consists  of  souvenirs  laid  up  by  them  in 
various  progressive  anterior  existences.  They  believe  the 
soul  can  raise  itself  above  passion  and  imaginalion,  by 
reason,  experience,  and  the  instruction  of  such  sages.  The 
more  orthodox  school  place  small  value  on  this  ac- 
cumulated knowledge  of  wise  men,  as  a  means  of  becoming 
at  one  with  God.  They  believe  in  a  Supreme  Soul,  and 
think  the  human  soul,  by  contemplation  and  self-re- 
nunciation, can  attain  such  a  state  of  mystical  union  there- 
with, that  direct  revelations  are  constantly  received  from 
the  Divine  Source.  All  souls  tend  to  this  state,  and  all 
souls  can  become  God. 

These  views  open  the  religious  life  to  all  castes,  and 
strike  directly  at  the  priesthood ;  for  if  the  Yedas  are 
rejected,  there  is  no  more  need  of  Bramins  to  explain 
them,  or  to  perform  the  ceremonies  they  prescribe;  every 
man  can  become  his  own  priest. 

It  is  obvious  that  from  various  sources  the  Hindoo  mind 
early  became  fomiliar  with  the  idea  that  holy  men  could 
arrive  at  a  state  of  elevation  transcending  the  gods.  This 
led  to  the  theory  of  divine  incarnations  in  the  human  form  ; 
tlie  next  step  was  to  worship  saints  as  gods.  This  is  done 
by  the  Djinists,  or  Jains.  The  word  Djina  is  merely  one 
iA'  the  numerous  woi-ds  a])|)li('d  to  saints,  to  express  their 
various  degrees  of  holiness;  but  in  process  of  time  it  was 


HINDOSTAN,    OR    INDIA.  SI 

appropriated  to  tliis  sect  only.  They  hold  most  of  the 
orthodox  o])inions  concerning  God  and  the  soul,  but  reject 
the  Vedas,  because  they  prescribe  bloody  sacrifices.  They 
believe  God  and  Nature  to  be  one  indivisible  existence. 
By  a  law  eternally  inherent  in  this  existence,  it  passes 
from  activity  to  repose,  alternately,  like  day  and  night. 
Active,  it  produces  creation,  without  however  being  de- 
pendent on  creation,  in  any  way.  The  material  world, 
which  emanated  thus,  is  subject  to  successive  changes, 
though  its  essence  never  perishes.  It  is  alternately  de- 
stroyed and  renovated  ;  never  by  any  exercise  of  divine 
will,  but  by  an  inherent  necessity.  The  duration  of  a 
world  is  divided  into  six  periods.  We  are  in  the  fifth, 
which  began  six  hundred  and  forty-three  years  before 
Christ.  In  each  of  these  periods  appear  twenty -four  saints, 
to  reform  and  purify  mortals.  These  saints  are  Spirits  de- 
scended upon  the  earth.  One  named  Vrischaba,  whom 
they  peculiarly  revere,  has  many  sacred  titles ;  such  as 
"  Lord  of  All  the  Saints,"  "  Supreme  over  Gods  and 
Spirits."  According  to  their  traditions,  he  was  a  prince, 
who  abdicated  in  flavour  of  his  son,  retired  into  the  forest, 
and  became  entirely  absorbed  in  the  Divine  Being.  They 
attribute  to  him  four  Sacred  Books  of  their  sect,  called 
Yoga.  They  likewise  regard  with  especial  reverence  the 
anchorite  Sramana,  who  is  said  to  have  been  absorbed  in 
the  Divine  Essence,  about  six  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era. 

They  opened  the  religious  life  to  all  castes,  except  Soo- 
dras ;  and  the  saints  of  their  own  sect  were  their  priests. 
In  old  times,  their  hermits  bound  themselves  by  very  rig- 
orous vows,  and  oftentimes  showed  their  indifference  to 
the  world  by  going  naked.  The  statues  of  these  saints  in 
their  temples  are  always  without  clothing.  It  is  asserted 
that  some  of  them  never  died,  but  gradually  dissolved 
away  into  phantoms,  and  thus  imperceptibly  mixed  v/ith 
the  Universal  Soul.  In  later  times,  the  religious  among 
them  are  less  strict.  They  merely  promise  to  be  poor, 
honest,  chaste,  truthful,  and  benevolent  toward  all  croa- 


82  PROGEESS    OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tiires.  For  this  last  trait  the  Jains  are  very  remarkable. 
They  offer  no  sacrifices  except  fruit,  flowers,  and  incense. 
A  prince  of  this  sect  allowed  himself  to  be  defeated,  rather 
than  march  his  army  in  the  rainy  season,  when  the  fires  of 
the  camp  would  destroy  insects  then  swarming.  Another 
prince  forbade  printers,  potters,  and  pressers  of  oil,  to  ex- 
ercise their  trades  during  four  months  of  that  season,  when 
they  must  inevitably  crush  many  insects. 

For  a  long  time  they  were  much  persecuted  by  the  or- 
thodox sects.  In  a  contest  between  them  and  the  adhe- 
rents of  the  Bramins,  some  of  the  Jain  priests  and  their 
most  zealous  disciples  were  ordered  to  be  ground  to  death 
in  oil-mills.  Yet  the  same  people  who  exercised  this  cru- 
elty reverenced  life  in  a  bee,  a  bird,  or  a  monkey,  as  a  por- 
tion of  the  Central  Soul !  In  1367  the  Jains  obtained  peace 
by  a  formal  reconciHation  with  the  Vishnuites,  whose  creed 
resembles  theirs  in  many  particulars.  They  employ  the 
Bramins  in  their  religious  ceremonies,  and  are  mostly  quiet, 
industrious  citizens. 

They  are  divided  into  sects  among  themselves,  and  some- 
times carry  their  opposition  so  far  as  to  fight  with  each 
other  when  they  meet  in  religious  processions.  Bishop 
Heber  asked  a  Jain  merchant  what  was  the  difference  be- 
tween his  views  and  those  of  another  sect.  He  coloured 
up  to  the  eyes,  and  answered  with  bitterness:  "As  much 
as  between  Hindoos  and  Christians;  as  much  as  between 
Christians  and  Mahometans."  But  a  Jain  priest,  who  was 
present,  said  more  calml}^:  "We  worship  the  same  God; 
but  they  are  ignorant  how  to  worship  him." 

The  Buddhists  are  by  far  the  most  important  sect  that 
have  appeared  in  India.  They  have  points  of  similarity 
with  the  Jains,  and  some  writers  have  confounded  the  two 
together.  But  the  Jains  have  always  persecuted  the  Budd- 
hists with  great  bitterness.  They  had  too  much  tenderness 
to  press  oil,  for  fear  of  crushing  insects  in  the  process,  but 
they  slaughtered  fellow-beings  without  mercy,  luidcr  the 
influence  of  theological  hatred.  The  Buddhists  worship 
Spiritual  Intelligences  descended  on  earth  in  the  form  of 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  83 

saints;  and  the  greatest  of  these  is  Bouddlia  Sakia  ]\[()uni, 
from  wliom  they  derive  their  name.  I'he  words  Bouddlia 
and  Mouni  both  mean  a  Saint,  or  a  holy  Sage  ;  thus  his 
name  is  Sakia,  and  his  titles  are,  the  sage  and  the  saint, 
the  wise  and  the  holy.  European  seholars  suppose  him  to 
have  been  a  great  saint  and  reformer,  who  tried  to  restore 
the  spiritual  doctrines  of  the  Vedas,  and  abolish  distinctions 
of  caste,  including  the  priesthood.  The  popular  belief  is 
that  he  was  an  incarnation  of  a  portion  of  Vishnu,  and 
that  he  had  previously  appeared  on  earth,  at  various  epochs, 
for  the  instruction  and  salvation  of  mankind.  Mercmy  is 
reckoned  among  the  beneficent  planets  in  India,  and  the 
name  given  to  it  is  Boodh,  or  Bouddha.  The  dav  conse- 
crated  to  that  luminar}^,  corresponding  to  our  Wednesday, 
is  the  holy  day  among  worshippers  of  Bouddha.  Some 
Hindoo  writers  say  he  was  the  planet  j\[ercury,  born  of  the 
]Moon  and  the  bright  star  Aldebaran.  Perhaps  this  means 
that  the  presiding  Spirit  of  Mercury  was  a  ray  from  Vish- 
nu, and  that  he  occasionally  descended  to  our  earth,  and 
took  a  human  form.  The  date  of  his  last  birth,  in  the 
character  of  Bouddha  Sakia,  varies  among  different  nations 
that  have  adopted  his  religion.  In  Cashmere  they  say  he 
appeared  only  two  hundred  years  later  than  Crishna,  whose 
advent  they  place  more  than  five  thousand  years  back. 
According  to  Mongol  records,  he  was  born  two  thousand 
one  hundred  and  thirty-four  years  before  the  Christian 
era;  but  the  Chinese  say  it  w^as  one  thousand  twenty-nine 
years.  In  Ce3'lon,  the  era  from  which  they  date  is  the  in- 
troduction of  Buddhism  into  that  island,  six  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  years  before  Christ ;  and  this  they  mistake  for 
the  date  of  Sakia's  birth.  The  learned  generally  give  their 
verdict  in  favour  of  the  Chinese  date ;  from  which  the 
opinion  of  Sir  William  Jones  varies  only  twenty-nine 
years.  That  the  sect  prevailed  extensively  in  India,  at  a 
very  remote  period,  is  abundantly  proved  by  numerous 
gigantic  temples  bearing  marks  of  great  antiquity.  His 
statues,  found  in  such  edifices,  give  the  same  indication ; 
for  they  represent  him  as  a  man  buried  in  profound  niedi- 


84  PllOGKESS   OF   liELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tation,  with  bair  knotted  all  over  his  bead,  after  the  man 
ner  of  hermits  in  very  ancient  times,  before  the  custom  of 
shaving  the  head  was  introduced.  From  this  peculiarity, 
some  travellers  have  mistaken  him  for  an  African.  Cole- 
brooke,  the  learned  Sanscrit  scholar,  conjectures  that  the 
Buddhists  were  in  existence  before  the  great  sects  of  Siva 
or  Crishna.  Tliat  they  were  sufficiently  conspicuous  to 
excite  hostility  before  the  Ramayana  was  written,  is  proved 
by  the  following  extract  from  that  ancient  poem :  "  As  an 
atheist  fallen  from  the  path  of  rectitude,  as  a  thief,  so  is  a 
Buddhist." 

Ilis  mother  Maia  is  said  to  have  been  a  virgin,  who  con- 
ceived him  from  a  ray  of  light.  As  Maia  was  one  of  the 
names  for  the  Goddess  of  Illusions,  this  might  have  merely 
signified  that  he  only  appeared  to  be  living  in  this  world ; 
that  his  mortal  existence  was  an  illusion  to  the  senses. 
Tradition  affirms  that  his  mother  was  married  to  a  rajah ; 
and  of  course  her  son  belonged  to  the  same  royal  caste  that 
Crishna  did  during  his  existence  on  earth.  The  advent  of 
Bouddha  is  thus  recorded:  "It  was  at  the  close  of  the 
,  Dwapar  Yug,  that  he  who  is  omnipresent  and  everlastingly 
to  be  contemplated,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Eternal  One, 
the  Divinity  worthy  to  be  adored,  appeared  in  this  ocean 
of  natural  beings,  with  a  portion  of  his  divine  nature."  It 
is  said  that  a  marvellous  light  shone  at  his  birth,  and  the 
Ganges  rose  and  fell  in  a  remarkable  manner.  The  mo- 
ment he  was  born,  he  stood  upright,  walked  forward  seven 
steps,  pointed  one  hand  upward  and  the  other  downward, 
and  distinctly  said,  "No  one  in  heaven,  or  on  earth,  de- 
serves liigher  adoration  than  I."  On  a  silver  plate,  found 
in  a  cave  near  Islamabad,  was  written  a  curious  inscrip- 
tion concerning  him.  It  states  that  a  saint  in  the  woods 
learned  by  inspiration  that  the  ninth  incarnation  of  Vish- 
nu had  just  appeared  in  the  house  of  the  rajah  of  Cailaa. 
He  flew  through  the  air  to  the  place  indicated,  and  said^ 
"I  came  hither  to  sec  the  new-born  child."  The  instant 
he  looked  at  him  he  declared  that  he  was  an  avatar,  and 
destined  to  introduce  a  new  religion  into  the  world. 


HINDOSTAN,    OR    INDIA.  85 

To  fulfil  the  requisitions  of  tlie  law,  Sakia  was  inari'icd 
at  sixteen  years  of  age.  His  parents  bestowed  upon  liim 
a  maiden  named  Ila,  Avhose  father  was  one  of  the  seven 
saints  saved  from  the  universal  Deluge,  in  the  miraculous 
ship  sent  by  Vishnu.  As  soon  as  a  son  was  born  to  him, 
he  renounced  his  princely  rank,  and  went  to  live  as  an  an- 
chorite in  a  wild  forest,  flourishing  with  noble  trees  and 
fragrant  flowers,  but  infested  with  lions  and  tigers.  Many 
stories  are  told  of  the  austerities  he  practised  there.  His 
spiritual  teacher  having  one  day  remarked  that  religious 
instructions  took  no  root  unless  accompanied  by  mortifica- 
tions and  sufferings,  he  covered  his  body  with  thousands 
of  matches,  which  he  lighted ;  at  another  time,  he  drove 
thousands  of  sharp  nails  into  his  flesh;  at  another,  he  went 
into  a  fiery  hot  furnace.  Having  one  day  encountered  a 
tiger  and  her  young  perishing  with  hunger,  he  offered  him- 
self to  them  for  food ;  but  the  beast  being  too  weak  to  eat 
him,  he  pierced  his  veins,  that  she  might  strengtiien  her- 
self with  his  blood,  and  afterward  allowed  himself  to  be 
devoured  by  her.  Once,  his  soul  entered  a  fox,  which  was 
so  extremely  beautiful,  that  the  king  threatened  his  hunt- 
ers with  death  if  they  did  not  bring  him  the  skin  of  that 
remarkable  creature.  He  therefore  allowed  himself  to  be 
caught,  on  condition  that  they  would  skin  him  alive,  to 
save  themselves  from  the  crime  of  murder.  They  did  so, 
and  this  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  gratify  his  benevo- 
lence by  feeding  swarms  of  hungry  insects,  who  imme- 
diately fastened  on  his  raw  flesh.  It  is  recorded  of  him  that 
he  spent  six  years  in  continual  silent  contemplation,  resist- 
ing manifold  temptations  sent  to  try  him.  During  this 
tithe,  five  Holy  Scriptures  descended  to  him,  he  was  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  could  alter  the  course 
of  nature  whenever  he  chose. 

His  worshippers  believe  that  the  severe  austerities  he 
practised  had  a  higher  and  more  benevolent  object  than 
the  attainment  of  perfect  holiness  and  complete  absorption 
for  himself.  He  was  a  Heavenly  Spirit,  dwelling  in  re- 
gions of  light  and  beauty,  who,  of  his  own  free  grace  and 

Vol.  I.— 8 


86  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

merc}',  left  Paradise,  and  came  down  to  earth,  because  he 
was  filled  with  compassion  for  the  sins  and  miseries  of 
mankind.  He  sought  to  lead  them  into  better  paths,  and. 
he  took  sufferings  upon  himself,  that  he  might  expiate 
their  crimes,  and  mitigate  the  punishment  they  must  inevi- 
tably undergo.  Ilindoos  of  all  sects  believe  that  every 
cause  has  a  certain  effect,  which  must  follow  it  by  inherent 
necessity ;  thus  every  sin  must  have  its  exact  amount  of 
suffering;  what  is  endured  in  this  world  will  be  deducted 
from  punishment  in  the  next;  and  what  one  voluntarily 
endures  for  another  will  be  placed  to  the  account  of  him 
he  wishes  to  benefit.  For  these  reasons,  JBouddha  inflicted 
terrible  penances  upon  himself  So  great  was  his  tender- 
ness, that  he  even  descended  into  the  hells,  to  teach  souls 
in  bondage  there,  and  was  willing  to  suffer  himself,  to 
abridge  their  period  of  torment. 

The  renown  of  Bouddha's  wisdom  and  holiness  attracted 
many  disciples,  to  whom  he  imparted  his  doctrines  and 
precepts  in  the  silent  depths  of  the  forest.  There  is  a  tra- 
dition that  he  taught,  as  a  secret  doctrine,  to  his  most  con- 
fidential disciples,  that  all  things  came  from  nothing,  and 
would  finally  return  to  nothing.  A  charge  of  atheism  has 
been  founded  on  this.  But  some  suppose  the  story  was 
fabricated  by  his  enemies  the  Bramins,  while  in  reality 
he  merely  taught  their  own  doctrine  that  after  an  inimense 
interval  of  revolving  ages,  all  things  in  the  universe,  even 
Brahma  himself,  would  be  absorbed  in  the  original  Source 
of  Being;  which  Buddhists  name  The  Void. 

Before  his  departure  from  this  world,  he  intrusted  his 
disciple  Mahakaya,  a  Bramin  of  Central  India,  with  all 
his  precepts  and  doctrines.  At  the  age  of  seventy-nine 
years,  Bouddha  Sakia's  whole  nature  attained  to  sucl) 
com})letc  absorption  in  the  Divine  Being,  that  he  ascended 
to  celestial  regions  without  dying.  They  show  marks  on 
the  rocks  of  a  high  mountain,  believed  to  have  been  the 
last  impression  of  his  footsteps  ou  this  earth.  By  ])rayers 
in  his  name,  his  followers  expect  to  receive  the  rewards 


IIINDOSTAN,    OR    INDIA.  87 

of  Paradise,  and  finally  to  become  one  with  him,  as  he  be- 
came one  with  the  Source  of  Life, 

It  is  said  his  disciples  composed  five  thousand  volumes 
in  honour  of  him.  The  titles  bestowed  upon  him  are  in- 
numerable; such  as  ''Son  of  Maia,"  "The  Benevolent 
One,"  "Lord  of  the  Earth,"  "Dispenser  of  Grace," 
"Saviour  of  all  Creatures,"  and  "Lion  of  the  Race  of 
Sakia." 

There  is  a  tradition  that  a  celebrated  sage  named  Amara, 
prime  mifiister  to  the  king,  and  called  "  one  of  the  nine 
jewels"  of  his  court,  recognized  Bouddha  to  be  an  incarna- 
tion of  Vishnu,  and  sought  to  propitiate  him  by  supe- 
rior service.  He  lived  in  the  forest  twelve  years  upon 
roots  and  wild  fruit,  and  slept  on  the  bare  ground.  He 
committed  no  sin,  and  devoted  his  whole  soul  to  pious 
contemplation.  One  night,  he  heard  a  voice  saying: 
"  Ask  whatever  thou  wilt."  He  replied :  "  Let  me  see  thee 
in  a  vision."  The  voice  answered :  "  How  can  there  be 
visions  in  the  Call  Yug?  But  the  same  benefit  may  be 
derived  from  seeing  and  worshipping  the  image  of  a  god, 
that  might  be  derived  from  seeing  and  worshipping  the 
ffod  himself"  A  vision  of  the  image  was  revealed  to  him. 
He  caused  a  likeness  of  it  to  be  made,  and  worshipped  it 
with  perfume  and  incense,  accompanied  by  the  following 
prayer:  "Reverence  be  unto  thee,  Lord  of  the  earth! 
Reverence  be  unto  thee,  thou  incarnation  of  the  Eternal 
One,  in  the  form  of  Bouddha!  Reverence  be  unto  thee, 
God  of  Mercy,  who  overcometh  the  sins  of  the  Cali  Yug! 
Reverence  be  unto  thee,  possessor  of  all  things,  ruler  of 
the  faculties,  bestower  of  salvation  !  Thou  art  he  who 
resteth  upon  the  fiice  of  the  Milky  Sea,  who  reposeth  on 
the  serpent  Seshanaga.  Thou,  who  art  celebrated  b}^  a 
thousand  names,  and  under  various  forms,  I  adore  thee  in 
the  shape  of  Bouddha !    Be  propitious,  0  Most  High  God  !" 

An  inscrii)tion  to  that  effect  was  found  carved  on  the 
rocks  in  a  wild  and  solitary  part  of  Behar,  not  far  from 
the  Ganges.  Its  date  corresponded  to  nine  hundred  and 
forty-nine  years  after  our  era. 


bo  PR0GEES3   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

The  doctrines  taught  by  Bouddhn,  and  his  disciples  bear 
a  general  resemblance  to  the  Braniinical  religion,  from 
which  they  sprung,  but  depart  from  them  in  several  par- 
ticulars calculated  to  have  an  important  influence.  M. 
Bochinger,  a  learned  and  discriminating  French  writer, 
says  : — "  Like  all  men  who  have  given  a  new  direction  to 
the  religious  ideas  of  their  cotemporaries,  Sakia  did.  not 
invent  a  system  altogether  new.  He  merely  pronounced, 
strongly  and  clearly,  that  which  many  of  his  cotemporaries 
had  obscurely  felt.  He  made  himself  the  representative 
of  opposition  to  Braminism,  which  had  for  some  time  ex- 
isted among  them." 

The  Buddhists  believe  in  One  Absolute  Existence,  in- 
cluding both  God  and  Nature.  When  they  speak  of  Pro- 
vidence, tbey  mean  an  intelligence  inherent  in  Nature,  by 
which  her  movements  are  regulated.  Philosophers  call 
this  doctrine  Naturalism.  To  avoid  attaching  any  idea  of 
form,  or  limit,  to  the  original  Source  of  Being,  the  Budd- 
hists called  him  by  a  name  signifying  The  Void,  or  Space. 
On  this  subtile  question,  they  are,  however,  divided  into 
several  schools.  Some  call  this  Absolute  Existence  The 
Supreme  Will,  The  Supreme  Intelligence.  They  supposed 
him  to  have  alternate  states  of  activity  and  repose.  When 
active,  he  produced  creation  ;  not  from  any  will  to  do  so, 
but  from  inherent  laws  of  development.  Thus  emanate 
successive  worlds,  all  changeable,  illusory,  and  unreal,  and 
destined  finally  to  return  to  The  Void  again.  Spiritual 
existences  are  evolved  in  descending  gradations  down  to 
man.  Human  beings  may  become  so  plunged  in  error 
and  ignorance  as  finally  to  lose  all  power  of  perceiving 
what  is  good  and  true.  From  this  low  condition  they 
could  never  be  raised  without  the  aid  of  Superior  Intelli- 
gences. The  Supreme  cannot  descend  to  their  relief,  for 
he  is  incapable  of  motion  or  change.  But  his  first  emana- 
tions, a  high  oixlcr  of  spiritual  existences,  charge  them- 
selves with  this  mission  of  salvation.  They  descend  to 
the  inferior  worlds,  even  down  into  the  lowest  hells,  to 
give  wretched  creatures  an  example  of  virtue,  explain  tlie 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  89 

cause  of  their  misery,  and  teach  them  how  to  attain  su- 
j)reme  happiness.  Such  have  been  all  the  great  saints 
they  adore  ;  but  such  in  a  pre-eminent  degree  was  Bouddha 
Sakia. 

They  beheve  the  world  has  been  successively  destroyed 
by  wind,  water,  and  fire ;  that  its  essence,  which  never 
dies,  has  been  renewed  in  form,  and  will  be  again  de- 
stro^'ed,  to  be  renewed  again.  The  degree  of  perfection 
of  a  world,  be  it  more  or  less,  depends  on  the  moral  char- 
acter of  those  who  inhabit  it.  In  proportion  as  the  beings 
of  an  inferior  world  are  all  saved  and  raised  to  superior 
worlds,  that  world  disappears.  Thus,  after  infinite  ages, 
all  return  to  the  Supreme  Essence,  to  reappear  in  new 
successive  emanations.  All  this  ascending  and  descending 
movement  has  its  source  in  laws  of  inherent  necessity. 
Hence  religious  Buddhists  compassionate  sinners,  as  beings 
impelled  to  crime  by  their  unfortunate  destiny. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  Hindoos  considered  them- 
selves a  pure  and  privileged  race,  set  apart  from  other  na- 
tions, and  polluted  by  contact  with  them.  But  Bouddha 
Sakia  and  his  disciples,  having  risen  above  the  Yedas,  re- 
jected the  limitation  of  castes  in  religious  life.  The  road 
to  saintship  in  this  world  was  freely  opened,  through  a 
course  of  devout  contemplation,  to  all  nations  and  all 
classes ;  to  foreigners  or  natives,  Bramins  or  Soodras, 
young  or  old,  men  or  women.  Bramins  naturally  regarded 
this  as  a  wicked  and  very  dangerous  innovation;  for  it 
was  contrary  to  the  Sacred  Books,  and,  if  it  prevailed  ex- 
tensively, must  strike  a  powerful  blow  at  the  privileges  of 
their  consecrated  order.  When  and  how  Buddhists  came 
to  liave  a  separate  priesthood  of  their  own  cannot  be  traced, 
'^riie  animosity  of  Bramins  would  naturally  drive  them  to 
the  expedient  of  having  religious  ceremonies  performed  by 
their  own  holiest  men.  These  men  were  not  holy  by 
birth,  like  the  Bramins,  but  had  attained  to  sanctity  by 
strict  celibacy  and  other  ascetic  practices.  By  this  process, 
it  seems  likely  that  celibacy  of  the  clergy  came  to  be  es- 
tablished, as  a  mark  of  distinction  between  them  and  other 
Vol.  I.— 8* 


90  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

sects.  This  peculiarity  would  of  course  increase  the  abhor- 
rence of  Braniins,  who  regarded  offspring  as  one  of  the 
greatest  blessings,  both  temporal  and  spiritual.  The  Sa- 
cred Books  strictly  enjoined  it  on  children,  as  a  religious 
obligation,  to  offer  stated  prayers  and  sacrifices,  to  assist 
the  souls  of  ancestors  through  stages  of  probation  after 
death.  Other  castes  might  procure  this  advantage  by  pay- 
ino-  for  it;  but  Bi'amins  alone  were  authorized  to  perform 
religious  ceremonies.  In  a  worldly  point  of  view,  the  es- 
tablishment of  celibacy  would  also  be  a  great  misfortune ; 
for  their  vast  possessions  and  inviolable  privileges  would 
all  be  scattered,  if  they  had  no  families  to  inherit  them. 
No  wonder  the  Bramins  peculiarly  detested  a  sect  which 
thus  struck  at  the  root  of  hereditary  priesthood.  The 
more  people  manifested  interest  in  their  tidings  of  spiritual 
emancipation,  the  inore  were  its  messengers  slandered  and 
persecuted.  The  Pouranas  charge  them  with  denying 
the  authority  of  Vedas  and  Shastras;  condemning  animal 
sacrifices ;  declaring  it  useless  to  worship  the  gods ;  not 
believing  in  transmigration,  but  teaching  that  the  five  ele- 
ments of  the  body  dissolved  at  death,  never  to  reunite  ; 
that  this  life  alone  was  worth  caring  for;  that  pleasure 
ought  to  be  the  chief  aim;  that  worship,  abstinence  and 
charity  were  useless. 

But  bitter  words  and  unjust  charges  were  the  smallest 
evils  they  had  to  endure.  They  were  hunted  like  wild 
beasts.  At  one  time,  orders  were  issued  to  put  to  death 
all  Buddiiists  and  their  families,  even  old  men  and  infants, 
from  the  Himalaya  mountains,  on  the  northern  frontier,  to 
the  bridge  of  Kama,  at  the  soutliern  extremity,  near  Cey- 
lon. They  lingered  longest  in  Southern  India,  where  the 
Bramins  were  not  so  supremely  powerful  as  elsewhere. 
But  Mahometans  assisted  in  the  relentless  warfare,  and  in 
till!  ninth  century  Buddiiists  were  expelled  from  eveiy  part 
of  Ilindostan.  Zeal,  stimulated  by  persecution,  had  im- 
jxdled  great  numbers  of  them  to  wander  abroad,  centuries 
before,  scattering  seeds  of  doctrine  as  they  went.  This 
final  expulsion  sent  forth  a  still  greater  swai'm  of  mission- 


HINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  91 

aries  to  other  nations.  How  extensively  they  proj^agated 
their  religion  in  Eastern  Asia  will  be  seen  in  the  (Chapter 
concerning  Thibet  and  Cliina. 

Tlie  niost  remarkable  modern  sect  among  Hindoos  is 
that  of  the  Sikhs,  or  Seiks;  fonnded  by  Nanac  Shah,  born 
in  the  year  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-nine  of 
our  era,  and  belonging  to  the  noble  caste  of  Cshatryas. 
When  very  young,  he  met  with  some  devotees,  who 
strongly  impressed  his  mind  with  the  idea  that  the  wor- 
ship of  One  Invisible  God  was  alone  worthy  of  wise  men. 
Seized  with  an  earnest  desire  for  knowledge,  he  travelled 
through  liindostan,  Persia,  and  Arabia,  and  visited  Mecca 
and  Medina.  He  became  acquainted  with  the  Mahometan 
mystics  called  Sufis,  and  was  particularly  attracted  by  the 
writings  of  one  of  them,  named  Cabik,  who  earnestly  en- 
joined universal  philanthropy  and  religious  toleration. 
Imbued  with  these  rational  and  benevolent  ideas,  Nanac 
Shah  resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  the  project  of  uniting 
Hindoos  and  Mahometans,  on  the  common  ground  of  a 
simple  faith  and  purity  of  morals.  He  treated  both  reli- 
gions with  great  respect,  but  in  his  own  teachings  dwelt 
solely  on  the  worship  of  One  God,  and  love  to  all  mankind. 
He  used  to  say  :  "  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  Mahomets, 
millions  of  Brahmas  and  Vishnus,  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  Ramas,  stand  before  the  throne  of  the  Almighty, 
and  they  all  die.  God  alone  is  immortal.  He  only  is  a 
good  Hindoo  who  is  just,  and  he  only  is  a  good  Mahom- 
etan whose  life  is  pure."  The  Fakirs,  and  the  people,  being 
accustomed  to  impute  supernatural  power  to  saints,  called 
upon  hiin  for  miracles.  But  he  answered:  "I  can  show 
none  worthy  of  attention.  A  teacher  of  sacred  truths 
needs  no  defence  but  the  purity  of  his  doctrines.  The 
world  may  alter,  but  the  Creator  is  unchangeable."  He 
was  a  pure  deist;  that  is,  a  believer  in  natural  religion, 
who  reverently  found  in  God  the  cause  of  all  things,  and 
considered  as  unimportant  the  authority  of  written  revela- 
tion, about  which  he  everywhere  saw  men  contending  so 
violently.     He  died  about  1540,  and  was  buried  at  Kirti- 


92  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

pur,  where  a  relic  of  liis  dress  is  preserved  in  one  ol'  their 
temples,  and  exhibited  to  pilgrims. 

His  benevolent  desiarn  of  bringinoi:  Hindoos  and  Mahom- 
etans  together  on  a  common  ground  of  toleration  and 
benevolence  was  utterly  defeated.  One  of  his  successors 
published  the  writings  of  Nanac,  the  first  sacred  book  of 
the  sect,  under  the  title  of  A'di  Grant'h.  It  attracted  the 
attention  and  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Mahometan  gov- 
ernment, and  they  put  to  death  the  collector  of  these 
writings.  His  son  roused  the  sect  to  vengeance,  and 
changed  the  benevolent  believers  into  fierce  warriors,  who 
thenceforth  received  the  name  of  Seiks,  or  lions.  Long 
and  bloody  wars  ensued,  and  the  Seiks  at  last  retreated  to 
the  Punjab,  where  a  Hindoo  chief  received  them  kindl\^ 
There  they  established  a  sort  of  independent  state,  in 
which  they  entirel}''  abolished  castes,  and  placed  Soodras 
and  Bramins  on  the  same  level.  They  always  go  armed, 
and  to  distinguish  themselves  forever  from  Mahometans 
and  Hindoos,  the}^  wear  a  blue  dress,  and  let  their  hair 
grow.  The  Mahometan  government,  determined  to  extir- 
pate them,  offered  a  price  for  their  heads,  and  every  one 
who  could  be  taken  was  immediately  put  to  death.  It 
is  said  not  one  of  them  could  be  persuaded  to  abjure 
his  religion  to  save  his  life.  They  now  govern  quite  a 
large  district  in  the  north-west  of  Hindostan. 

Among  the  numerous  minor  sects  is  one  called  Sander, 
which  means  Worshippers  of  God.  They  are  quiet,  orderly 
citizens,  mostly  merchants  and  husbandmen.  They  adore 
but  One  Divine  Being,  to  whom  they  offer  only  hymns. 
They  abstain  from  wine,  tobacco,  and  dancing,  ofi:er  no 
violence  to  man  or  beast,  and  are  enjoined  to  practise  in- 
dustry, secret  almsgiving,  and  prayer. 

In  Hindostan,  as  elsewhere,  there  have  always  been 
classes  of  minds  who  doubted  or  disbelieved  the  popular 
forms  of  faith.  Some  learned  Bramins  of  the  present  day 
smile  at  tcrril)lc  descriptions  of  the  hells,  in  their  Sacred 
Bo(jks,  as  bugbeai's  fit  only  for  the  ignorant.  Even  so  far 
back  asCrishna's  time,  he  had  occasion  to  dechire  :  "There 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   IXDIA.  93 

arc  those  who  know  not  what  it  is  to  proceed  in  virtue,  or 
recede  from  vice.  They  say  the  world  is  without  begin- 
ning, without  end,  without  a  Creator." 

The  universal  power  of  the  religious  sentiment  is  mani- 
fested in  the  immense  labour  and  expense  bestowed  on 
places  of  worship  in  all  ages  and  nations.  Stupendous 
works  of  this  kind  remain  as  vestiges  of  ancient  Hindo- 
stan.  The  sight  of  them  fills  the  beholder  with  astonish- 
ment, especially  when  he  reflects  that  they  were  produced 
by  the  persevering  toil  of  an  indolent  people,  whose  favour- 
ite maxim  is,  "  It  is  better  to  sit  still  than  to  walk,  better 
to  sleep  than  be  awake,  and  death  is  best  of  all."  The 
most  remarkable  are  subterranean  temples  cut  through  the 
heart  of  mountains,  inch  by  inch,  in  the  solid  rock. 

On  the  island  of  Salsette,  likewise  called  Kenner}^,  near 
Bombay,  are  celebrated  excavations  of  this  description, 
capable  of  containing  thousands  of  inhabitants.  The 
largest  temple  is  ninety  feet  long  and  thirty-eight  wide, 
with  a  spacious  portico,  and  a  lofty,  fluted,  concave  roof, 
which  gives  it  a  majestic  appearance.  Two  rows  of  col- 
umns, thirty-four  in  number,  form  an  area  in  the  centre; 
the  capitals  of  many  of  them  are  elephants'  heads,  others 
formed  of  lotus  leaves  and  blossoms.  On  each  side  of  the 
portico  stands  a  colossal  statue,  and  various  groups  of 
smaller  figures  face  the  entrance.  This  was  consecrated 
to  Bouddha,  and  contains  manifold  representations  of  him. 
His  principal  image,  sitting  cross-legged,  with  hair  knotted 
all  over  his  head,  is  surrounded  with  small  sculptured  fig- 
ures in  relief,  probably  intended  to  illustrate  his  history. 
There  are  two  other  temples  nearly  as  large,  numerous 
chapels,  and  apartments  apparently  intended  for  hermits; 
also  benches,  open  courts,  and  tanks  for  rain-water,  all 
hewn  out  of  very  hard  stone,  and  ornamented  with  sculjv 
tures.  There  are  some  inscriptions  on  the  walls,  but  the 
characters  bear  no  resemblance  to  any  of  the  various  al- 
phabets now  used  in  India.  It  is  a  language  lost  to  the 
memory  of  man,  and  has  not  yet  been  deciphered.  In  an- 
other grotto  temple  between  Bombay  and  Poonah,  Boud- 


94  PROGRESS   OF   REUGIOUS    IDEAS. 

dha  is  represented  in  the  sinie  attitude,  with  knotted  hair, 
and  surrounded  by  crowds  of  worshij)pers.  Bramins  as- 
cribe its  construction  to  Evil  Spirits,  called  Kakshasas,  and 
forbid  any  religious  ceremony  to  be  performed  in  it. 

The  island  of  Eleplianta,  not  far  from  Salsette,  takes  its 
name  from  a  huge  stone  elephant,  in  ruinous  condition. 
The  excavations  here  are  truly  wonderful,  though  the  de- 
sign and  execution  is  more  rude  than  the  architecture  at 
Salsette.  The  principal  temple  is  itself  one  hundred  and 
thirty  feet  in  length,  and  the  same  in  breadth;  not  includ- 
ing numerous  apartments  and  chapels  connected  with  it. 
The  whole  is  hewn  solely  out  of  rock,  and  forms  a  com- 
plete grotto.  Being  lower  than  the  great  subterranean 
temple  at  Salsette,  it  has  a  more  cavernous  appearance. 
Twenty-six  pillars  and  sixteen  pilasters  support  the  mass 
of  rock  which  serves  for  a  roof.  At  the  entrance  is  a 
statue  of  the  Hindoo  Trinity,  Brahma,  serenelj^  majestic, 
is  in  the  centre;  on  one  side  is  Vishnu,  with  a  mild  coun- 
tenance ;  on  the  other  is  Siva,  with  a  severe  aspect,  holding 
the  serpent  Oobra  do  Capello  in  one  hand,  pomegranates 
and  lotus-blossoms  in  the  other.  This  colossal  image, 
thirteen  feet  high,  almost  fills  the  space  from  floor  to  roof. 
Ganesa,  god  of  Wisdom,  is  near  Brahma,  with  a  style  in 
his  hand,  ready  for  writing.  Several  gigantic  figures  are 
in  attendance.  Serpents  are  everywhere  twisting  about, 
enfolding  the  statues.  The  figures  on  the  walls  are  in  such 
bold  relief,  that  they  merely  adhere  to  the  rock  by  their 
backs.  Among  the  numerous  symbols,  the  Triangle  is 
conspicuous,  Hindoos  attached  m3'stic  signification  to  its 
tliree  sides,  and  generally  placed  it  in  their  temples.  It 
was  often  composed  of  lotus  plants,  with  an  Eye  in  the 
centre.  Every  thing  indicates  that  this  temple  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  worship  of  Siva.  The  Symbol  of  Generation  is 
])]aced  in  one  recess,  and  another  is  occupied  by  a  huge 
image  of  his  Sacred  Bull.  His  own  likeness  occurs  in 
every  variety.  In  one  place,  he  is  represented  half  man 
and  half  woman;  in  another,  he  appears  as  the  Destroyer, 
with  a  sci'pent,  a  sword,  and  a  necklace  of  skulls.     On  th(j 


fllNDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  95 

ricli]v-scn][)tarc(l  walls,  ho  is  represented  as  receiving  liis 
bri(U'  Parvati,  from  Cama,  God  of  Love,  and  conducting  her 
to  his  Paradise  of  Kailasa.  They  are  accompanied  by  a 
numerous  train  of  gods  and  goddesses.  A  great  variety 
of  small  aerial  beings  hover  round  them  in  graceful  atti- 
tudes, but  generally  with  a  heavy,  sleepy  look.  The  num- 
ber of  statues  and  sculptures  in  relief  is  immense.  Ad- 
joining the  temple  are  two  baths,  with  walls  beautifully 
carved,  the  roof  and  cornice  painted  in  mosaic  patterns, 
the  colours  of  which  are  still  brilliant,  Bramins  confess 
that  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  date  to  these  wonderful 
structures.  All  tradition  of  their  origin  is  lost  in  the 
misty  past.  Every  thing  proves  their  antiquity  to  be  ex- 
ceedingly great.  The  rock  is  of  clay-porphyr}^,  one  of 
the  very  hardest  species  of  stone.  It  is  supposed  that  it 
could  not  have  been  cut  without  the  aid  of  a  peculiar  kind 
of  steel,  called  Wudz,  for  which  India  was  celebrated,  even 
in  ancient  times.  Yet  this  material,  apparently  indestruc- 
tible, is  yielding  under  the  slow  pressure  of  ages.  IVlany 
of  the  sculptures  are  so  dissolved  by  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere, that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  their  forms.  What  a  long 
h\pse  of  time  it  must  have  taken  to  corrode  such  a  flinty 
material ! 

"At  Carli,"  says  Bishop Ileber,  "is  another  remarkable 
cave  hewn  in  a  precipice.  The  apartments  were  evidently 
intended  for  hermits,  and  some  of  them  are  ornamented 
with  great  beauty.  The  -entrance  to  the  temple  is  under  a 
noble  arch.  Within  the  portico  are  alto-relievo  figures  of 
colossal  elephants;  heads,  tusks,  and  trunks  very  boldly 
])rojecting  from  the  wall.  On  each  side  of  them  is  a  Ma- 
hout, or  driver,  very  well  carved,  and  a  houdah  with  two 
persons  seated  in  it.  The  screens  on  each  side  the  door  are 
covered  with  alto-relievos  of  men  and  women,  whom  the 
Hindoos  explain  to  be  religious  enthusiasts,  attendants  on 
the  deity.  The  columns  inside  are  carved  with  singular 
beauty.  Each  of  the  capitals  consists  of  a  large  cap,  like 
a  bell,  finely  carved,  and  surmounted  by  two  elephants, 
\vith  their  trunks  intertwined,  each  carrying  a  man   and 


96  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

woman  on  their  backs.  These  are  likewise  explained  to 
be  saints."  The  image  of  Bouddha,  surrounded  bj  worship- 
pers, occurs  in  many  places  in  this  grotto,  consequently 
Bramins  say  it  was  made  by  Evil  Spirits.  There  are  nu- 
merous inscriptions  in  unknown  characters. 

But  the  most  marvellous  of  all  grotto  temples  are  those 
at  Ellora,  almost  in  the  exact  centre  of  India,  nearDeogur, 
which  signifies  The  Holy  Mountain.  These  excavations 
are  hewn  within  a  chain  of  mountains,  embracing  a  circuit 
of  six  miles,  arranged  in  horse-shoe  form,  and  principally 
composed  of  very  hard  red  granite.  Here  are  a  series  of 
temples  cut  in  rock,  some  of  them  two  and  even  three 
stories  high.  The  largest  takes  its  name  from  Siva's  Para- 
dise, called  Kailasa.  It  is  a  hundred  feet  high,  and  a  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  feet  long.  On  each  side  of  the  colon- 
nades at  the  entrance  are  huge  Sphinxes.  A  row  of  enor- 
mous elephants  seem  to  sustain  the  superincumbent  rock, 
and  produce  an  imposing  effect.  There  are  many  large 
temples,  sometimes  joining  each  other,  sometimes  separated 
by  intervals,  occupied  with  smaller  temples.  The  extent 
and  number  of  these  extraordinary  subterranean  works  can 
hardly  be  imagined.  There  are  entire  pyramidal  temples, 
standing  in  open  courts,  peristyles,  staircases,  bridges, 
tanks,  chapels,  porticoes,  obelisks,  columns,  and  a  great 
number  of  colossal  statues,  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high. 
On  the  right  and  left  of  the  temples  are  chambers  cut  out 
of  the  rock,  apparently  for  the  convenience  of  priests  be- 
longing to  the  sanctuary.  In  some  places,  a  large  enclo- 
sure is  surrounded  by  rows  of  columns,  which  sustain  three 
galleri(^s,  one  above  another.  An  immense  number  of 
small  grottoes  seem  to  have  been  intended  for  the  reception 
of  thousands  of  pilgrims.  On  some  of  the  walls  are  in- 
scriptions in  Sanscrit.  Porticoes,  columns  and  walls  are 
everywhere  covered  with  sculptures,  many  of  them  painted 
in  bright  colours,  which  still  retain  theii- brilliancy.  Trav- 
ellers declare  that  "the  variety,  richness  and  skill  displayed 
in  these  ornaments  surpass  all  description."  Mr.  Erskine 
Bays :  "  The  first  view  (jf  this  desolate  religious  city  is  grand 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  97 

and  striking,  but  melanclioly.  Tlic  number  and  magnifi- 
cence of  the  subterranean  temples,  the  extent  and  lofti- 
ness of  some,  the  endless  diversity  of  sculpture  in  others, 
the  variety  of  curious  foliage,  of  minute  tracery,  highly 
wrought  pillars,  rich  mythological  designs,  sacred  shrines, 
and  colossal  statues,  astonish  and  distract  the  mind.  The 
empire,  whose  pride  they  must  have  been,  has  passed  away, 
and  left  not  a  memorial  behind  it."  The  images  of  deities, 
either  entire  statues,  or  carved  in  bold  relief,  are  counted 
by  thousands.  In  fact  this  collection  of  temples  seems  in 
tended  to  embrace  the  worship  of  them  all.  One  is  conse 
crated  to  Siva  and  Parvati,  whose  marriage  festival  is  rep- 
resented on  the  walls.  Another  is  dedicated  to  Vishnu 
and  his  beautiful  consort.  Another  contains  a  colossal 
statue  of  Indra  seated  on  a  recumbent  elephant,  and  his 
wife  Indrani  on  a  recumbent  lion,  Eama  and  his  wife 
Sita  occupy  another,  whose  walls  are  sculptured  with  his 
battles,  described  in  the  Ramayana.  One  of  the  temples 
is  dedicated  to  Visvacarma,  the  celestial  architect,  said  to 
have  built  Vishnu's  palace  in  Paradise.  The  age  of  these 
stupendous  structures  is  as  difficult  to  be  determined  as 
those  at  Elephanta  and  Salsette,  but  the  superior  work- 
manship is  supposed  to  indicate  that  they  are  less  ancient. 
At  whatever  epoch  they  were  commenced,  it  must  have 
taken  centuries  to  complete  them.  As  the  Bramins  have 
no  record  of  their  origin,  they  say  they  were  built  before 
the  Call  Vug,  by  Visvacarma  himself,  assisted  by  Vishnu. 
Beside  these  subterranean  excavations,  there  are  won- 
derful structures,  hewn  in  solid  rock,  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  Such  are  the  Seven  Pagodas,  very  ancient 
monuments  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  about  thirty-five 
miles  south  of  Madras.  On  the  summit  of  a  hill  is  a  vast 
collection  of  temples  and  other  buildings,  columns,  porti- 
coes, and  massive  walls,  almost  entirely  cut  from  the  solid 
rock  of  the  hill.  As  one  approaches  the  coast,  it  has  the 
appearance  of  a  royal  town,  A  large  proportion  of  the 
buildings  are  covered  by  the  sea,  and  may  be  seen  far  out 
under  the  water.  It  is  conjectured  that  they  were  en- 
Vol.  I.— 9  e 


98  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IPEAS. 

gulfed  bj  an  earthquake,  or  some  other  terrible  convulsion 
of  nature.  Bat  it  happened  so  long  ago,  that  all  recollec- 
tion of  the  catastrophe  is  completely  lost.  The  defacement 
and  complete  obliteration  of  some  of  the  ornaments,  by 
the  operation  of  the  atmosphere,  likewise  indicates  great 
antiquity.  The  style  and  workmanship  of  some  of  the 
temples  is  said  to  be  very  grand  and  striking.  There  are 
many  colossal  images  of  deities,  and  of  elephants,  lions,  and 
other  animals  connected  with  their  history.  Human  figures 
like  dwarfs  are  often  placed  in  striking  contrast  with  these 
huge  creatures.  The  Symbol  of  Generation  in  some  of  the 
temples  indicates  that  Siva  was  worshipped  there.  But 
the  buildings  are  principally  consecrated  to  Yishnu,  espe- 
cially to  his  incarnation  in  the  form  of  Crishna.  There  is 
a  colossal  image  of  Vishnu  sleeping  on  his  thousand-headed 
snake  covered  with  stars.  In  one  place  Crishna  is  repre- 
sented enfolded  by  the  Serpent  of  Death ;  in  another,  tread- 
ing the  Serpent  under  his  feet,  in  allusion  to  his  victory 
over  death.  He  is  also  represented  with  the  Nine  Gopias 
dancing  round  him.  In  fact,  whole  scenes  from  the  Ma- 
habharata  are  sculptured  on  the  walls.  There  are  inscrip- 
tions over  several  of  the  statues,  but  they  have  not  yet 
been  deciphered.  Tradition  attributes  these  edifices  and 
Cyclopean  walls  to  kings  of  the  race  of  Pandos,  relatives 
of  Crishna,  and  conspicuous  in  his  history. 

At  Tanjore,  in  the  south  of  India,  is  a  very  celebrated 
old  temple,  formed  of  massive  hewn  stones,  piled  one 
above  another,  without  exterior  decoration.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  pyramid,  two  hundred  feet  high.  The  interior 
contains  a  large  hall,  lighted  by  lamps,  where  the  Bramins 
assemble  to  perform  certain  religious  ceremonies.  The 
worship  of  Siva  is  indicated  by  the  Symbol  of  Generation, 
and  a  colossal  image  of  his  Bull,  called  Nundi.  It  is 
formed  of  an  t^itire  block  of  brown  porphyry,  sixteen  feet 
long,  and  twelve  feet  high.  This  animal  was  an  object  of 
religious  worsliij),  and  liis  annual  festival  was  observed 
with  much  })()ni]),  during  wliich  \\k'  pcx)|)le  went  to  his 
tem])le   in    processi(jn,  with   liulcs,  cymbals,  and  garlands. 


HINDOSTAN,    OR  INDIA.  99 

There  is  no  determinate  account  wlien  this  structure  wag 
erected ;  and  that  circumstance,  togetlier  with  its  primitive 
style  of  architecture,  indicates  high  antiquity. 

At  Chalambron,  in  the  district  of  Tanjore,  are  a  collec- 
tion of  sacred  buildings,  within  a  double  enclosure.  On 
each  side  is  a  magnificent  gateway,  formed  of  large  blocks 
of  stone,  with  pilasters  thirty-two  feet  high,  surmounted  by 
a  pyramid  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  ornamented 
from  top  to  bottom  with  sculptures.  There  are  three 
chapels  within  a  separate  enclosure.  One  contains  no 
religious  symbol  to  indicate  the  deity  to  whom  it  was  con- 
secrated. One  is  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  the  other  to  Siva. 
A  large  tank  occupies  the  centre  of  the  area,  with  a  colon- 
nade and  steps  of  stone,  by  which  pilgrims  descend  into 
the  holy  water.  On  the  right  side  is  the  largest  temple, 
dedicated  to  Parvati,  whose  statue  stands  immediately 
facing  the  entrance.  The  portico  is  supported  on  six  rows 
of  columns,  covered  from  top  to  bottom  with  carved 
figures.  The  sanctuary  is  lighted  by  numerous  lamps,  and 
before  it  stands  an  image  of  the  Sacred  Bull.  The  pilasters 
which  form  the  entrance  are  connected  by  a  chain,  curi- 
ously carved  from  one  piece  of  stone.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  tank  is  a  chapel  standing  in  the  middle  of  an  enor- 
mous hall,  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long,  and  two 
hundred  and  sixty  broad.  The  flat  roof  is  formed  of  im- 
mense blocks  of  stone  laid  horizontally,  supported  by  up- 
wards of  one  thousand  pillars.  Every  part  of  this  hall  is 
ornamented  with  sculptures,  representing  scenes  from  the 
Mahabharata,  and  other  Sacred  Writings.  These  various 
halls  and  chapels  were  intended  for  the  reception  of  statues, 
conveyed  on  huge  cars,  during  some  of  the  annual  festivals. 
Three  thousand  Bramins  were  employed  in  the  services  of 
this  sanctuar}^  The  enormous  expenses  were  defrayed  by 
the  vast  concourse  of  pilgrims  that  flocked  thither.  One 
of  the  Pouranas  record  that  these  edifices  were  erected  six 
hundred  and  seventeen  years  before  our  era;  but  portions 
are  believed  to  be  of  later  date.     One  of  the  large  gate- 


100  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ways  was  rebuilt  not  many  3^ears  ago,  by  a  pious  widow, 
at  the  cost  of  about  seventy-five  thousand  dollars. 

On  the  river  Bunas  is  a  magnificent  temple  to  Crishna, 
called  Nathdwara,  or  The  Portal  of  God.  It  contains  a 
statue  of  Crishna,  said  to  have  been  in  existence  many 
ages,  if  not  from  the  time  when  he  was  himself  on  earth. 
No  terrible  austerities  are  practised  here,  no  animals  sacri- 
ficed ;  but  from  all  points  of  the  compass  are  poured  in 
offerings  to  this  most  popular  incarnation  of  compassionate 
Vishnu.  Some  give  large  landed  estates,  others  bestow 
rich  coronets  and  costly  jewels  to  adorn  his  image.  Spices 
are  sent  from  the  Indian  Isles,  frankincense  from  Tartary, 
dried  grapes  from  Persia,  rich  shawls  from  Cashmere,  silks 
from  Bengal,  grain  and  I'ruit  from  tlie  husbandmen,  flowers 
from  women  and  children.  The  presiding  Bramin  ap- 
points consuls  in  all  the  great  commercial  cities  to  collect 
and  transmit  the  donations  of  millions  of  votaries. 

One  of  the  oldest  and  most  venerated  temples  is  that  of 
Jaga  Nath,  commonly  called  Juggernaut ;  one  of  the  titles 
of  Vishnu,  signifying  Lord  of  the  AVorld.  It  is  at  Orissa, 
on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Coromandel  coast. 
Europeans  generally  call  it  the  Black  Pagoda,  because  its 
dark  colour,  relieved  by  the  sandy  shore,  makes  it  a  con- 
spicuous object  to  mariners  a  great  distance  off.  It  is  a 
huge  grotesque  pyramid  of  granite  blocks,  three  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high,  crowned  with  copper  balls  and  orna- 
ments, flashing  in  the  sunshine.  It  is  covered  with  sculp- 
tures, among  which  is  a  large  Sphinx,  and  many  sexual 
emblems.  An  enormous  Bull  carved  in  granite  projects 
from  the  front,  which  is  toward  the  east.  There  is  a  tra- 
dition that  when  it  was  built  it  was  ordained  that  distinc- 
tions of  caste  should  be  laid  aside  in  the  worship  conducted 
there,  and  consequently  that  superiors  and  inferiors  might 
eat  together  without  })()llutioii.  This  jilace  is  the  scene  of 
one  of  the  most  sliocking  festivals  observed  in  modern 
times,  as  will  be  seen  in  succeeding  pages. 

On  an  island  between  the  continent  and  Ceylon  are 
three  pagodas  within  one  enclosure,  with  a  gate  forty  feet 


1 


IIINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  101 

high.  One  temple  is  dedicated  to  Siva,  another  to  Rama, 
another  to  Sita.  The  grand  entrance  to  the  largest  is  a 
truncated  pyramid  formed  of  rough  blocks  of  stone.  The 
exterior  of  these  buildings  is  painted  red,  and  adorned 
with  a  surprising  amount  of  sculpture.  Lord  Valentia 
says:  "They  present  a  magnificent  appearance,  which  we 
might  in  vain  seek  adequate  language  to  do3cribe."  They 
are  regarded  as  among  the  most  ancient  sanctuaries  of  the 
nation,  and  no  foreigner  is  allowed  to  enter  within  the 
hallowed  precincts. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Kotah  is  the  beautiful  temple  of 
Barolli,  made  of  close-grained  quartz-rock.  Like  many 
other  of  the  old  edifices,  it  is  covered  with  a  kind  of 
stucco  that  hardens  with  time,  and  has  the  appearance 
of  fine  marble  cement.  It  is  in  excellent  preservation, 
though  it  bears  marks  of  great  age.  The  temple  is  not 
hirge,  being  only  fifty-eight  feet  high,  but  it  is  remarkable 
for  the  profusion  of  sculpture  with  which  every  stone  is 
covered,  and  for  the  ease  and  gracefulness  of  the  figures. 
The  gateway  is  adorned  by  two  uncommonly  fine  statues 
of  Siva  and  Parvati.  Colonel  Tod,  who  first  visited  the 
place,  says  there  are  some  heads  on  the  walls  that  would 
be  no  disgrace  to  the  chisel  of  Canova.  He  says:  "It 
would  require  the  labour  of  several  artists,  for  six  months, 
to  do  anything  like  justice  to  the  wonders  of  Barolli." 

The  Jains  have  many  handsome  temples.  Bishop  lieber 
thus  describes  one  of  them: — "The  priest  led  us  into  a 
succession  of  six  small  rooms,  with  an  altar  at  the  end  of 
each,  over  which  was  a  large  basso-relievo  in  marble. 
The  last  apartment  contained  twenty-five  figures,  all  of 
men  sitting  cross-legged,  one  considerably  larger  than  the 
rest,  and  represented  as  a  negro.*  The  priest  said  he  was 
their  God,  and  the  other  figures  were  the  different  bodies 


*  This  appearance  was  probably  occasioned  by  liair  twisted  and  knotted 
ftU  over  tlie  head,  according  to  the  ancient  fashion  of  lierniits.     The  larger 
fi.'.ze  of  one  of  these  figui-es  indicated  liis  superior  wisdom  ;  it  being  com- 
mon among  them  to  represent  greatness  of  chai'acter  by  bigness. 
Vol.  T.— 9* 


102  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

he  had  assumed  at  different  epochs,  when  he  had  become 
incarnated  to  instruct  mankind.  The  progress  made  in 
the  mysteries  he  taught  entitle  a  man  to  worship  in  one  or 
more  of  the  successive  apartments  shown  to  us.  In  the 
centre  of  each  room  was  a  large  tray  with  rice  and  ghee 
strongly  perfumed,  apparently  as  an  offering;  and  in  two 
of  them  were  men  seated  on  their  heels  on  the  floor,  with 
hands  folded  as  in  prayer,  or  religious  meditation."  The 
Hindoo  attitude  of  worship  is  with  the  folded  hands  raised 
to  the  forehead,  or  the  face  laid  prostrate  on  the  ground. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  private  family 
chapel  of  a  wealthy  Hindoo :—"  Though  small,  it  was  as 
rich  as  carving,  painting  and  gilding  could  make  it.  The 
principal  shrine  was  that  of  Siva,  whose  Emblem  rose 
amid  the  darkness  of  the  inner  sanctuary,  crowned  with 
scarlet  flowers,  with  lamps  burning  before  it.  Under  the 
centre  cupola  was  the  Sacred  Bull  richly  painted  and 
gilded,  in  an  attitude  of  adoration,  likewise  crowned  with 
scarlet  flowers.  On  the  walls  were  paintings  of  gods  and 
goddesses.  Over  all  hung  a  large  silver  bell,  suspended 
from  the  roof,  like  a  chandelier." 

"Hermitages  in  the  rocks  abound  in  every  part  of  Hin- 
dostan.  The  situation  is  always  picturesque,  in  the  midst 
of  water,  and  under  the  shade  of  trees.  Many  of  them  are 
on  cliff's  above  the  rivers,  with  bamboos  hanging  gracefully 
over  the  entrance.  Inside  is  a  low  stone  couch  and  a 
bracket  for  a  lamp  or  idol.  Some  of  them  are  elaborately 
carved." 

A  volume  might  be  filled  with  descriptions  of  the  nume- 
rous temples  in  Hindostan,  but  enough  has  been  said  to 
convey  an  idea  of  their  grandeur,  and  of  the  religious  zeal 
of  the  people.  The  most  ancient  are  in  the  form  of  a  py- 
ramid. The  great  porch,  or  entrance,  is  a  truncated  pyra- 
mid, running  out  at  the  top  into  the  shape  of  a  half  moon. 
The  four  sides  face  the  cardinal  points,  and  the  front  is 
toward  the  east.  This  form  is  prescribed  by  their  Sacred 
Laws.  The  gigantic  proportions,  low  massive  })i liars,  and 
the  deep  shadows  made  by  projections,  produce  a  solemn 


HINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  103 

effect,  while  a  feeling  of  vastness  and  infinity  is  impressed 
on  the  mind  by  the  almost  endless  repetition  of  small 
figures,  delicately  carved.  The  sun,  moon,  bulls,  rams, 
goats,  serpents,  and  other  representations  of  planets  and 
constellations,  abound  everywhere,  showing  that  astronomy 
was  very  intimately  connected  with  their  religious  ideas. 
The  interior  of  these  old  pyramidal  temples  is  very  awful; 
for  light  being  excluded,  the  colossal  statues  of  gods,  often 
of  frightful  aspect,  the  huge  serpents  and  enormous  ani- 
mals carved  in  stone,  are  fitfully  revealed,  in  the  midst  of 
black  shadows,  by  the  wavering  light  of  lamps  or  torches. 
Many  of  the  grand  old  edifices,  which  stand  above  ground, 
seem  destined  to  perish.  The  wild  fig-tree  sows  its  seed 
in  the  crevices,  and  being  a  sacred  plant,  it  is  deemed  sin- 
ful either  to  root  it  out  or  cut  off  its  branches.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  years  its  rapid  growth  makes  the  temples 
Icjok  extremely  picturesque,  but  it  eventually  destroys 
them.  Sometimes  large  slabs  of  stone,  covered  with  sculp- 
tured images  and  emblems,  become  incorporated  with  the 
substance  of  the  tree,  and  are  completely  encased  in  wood. 

Ul)per  India  has  been  so  ravaged  by  conquerors  that 
few  vestiges  of  its  religious  monuments  remain.  Many 
circumstances  tend  to  prove  that  part  of  the  country  the 
cradle  of  Hindoo  civilization  ;  therefore,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  antiquity  of  some  of  the  structures  still  remaining, 
it  is  conjectured  that  they  are  not  so  ancient  as  were  some 
that  have  disappeared. 

In  Ilindostan,  the  temples  are  called  Dewals.  The  term 
Pagoda,  generally  used  by  Europeans,  is  said  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  one  of  their  words,  signifying  a  Holy  House. 
In  all  periods  of  their  history  the  devotion  of  the  people 
has  led  to  the  construction  of  new  ones,  and  so  it  is  at  the 
present  time.  A  Hindoo  village  is  generally  a  mere  col- 
lection of  bamboo  huts  surrounding  a  Pagoda.  Modern 
temples  have  lost  the  ancient  character  of  grandeur.  The 
ornaments  are  generally  tawdry  and  the  sculptures  shock- 
ing specimens  of  deformity.  Few  of  these  buildings  have 
more  than  three  or  four  rooms,  and  some  have  only  one, 


104:  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

large  enough  for  the  images,  and  a  few  attendants.  On 
the  occasion  of  great  ceremonies,  the  crowd  of  people  stand 
in  an  open  area  in  front  of  the  gates. 

The  Banian,  or  Indian  Fig-tree,  droops  its  branches, 
which  take  root  as  soon  as  they  touch  the  ground.  As 
they  grow  to  amazing  size,  and  apparently  never  decay, 
magnificent  groves  are  formed,  with  agreeable  vistas  and 
cool  recesses.  The  large  green  foliage  is  lively  with  squir- 
rels and  monkeys,  and  brilliant  with  parrots,  peacocks,  and 
scarlet  figs.     Sometimes, 

"  This  pillared  shade, 
High  overarched,  with  echoing  walks  between," 

is  spacious  enough  to  shelter  a  thousand  people.  The 
Hindoos  consider  its  far-stretching  arms,  its  beneficent 
shadows,  and  its  long  life,  emblematic  of  Deity,  and  they 
pay  it  almost  divine  honours.  They  plant  it  near  their 
temples,  and  in  villages  where  there  are  no  temples,  these 
groves  are  consecrated  as  places  of  worship.  Here  are 
placed  blocks  of  black  or  white  marble,  or  common  upright 
stones,  on  which  they  pour  oil  for  sacrifice  ;  altars  sur- 
mounted by  vases  containing  consecrated  plants;  images 
of  the  sacred  cow ;  and  the  emblem  of  Siva.  To  these 
groves  worshippers  bring  their  oblations  of  flowers,  grain, 
fruit,  incense,  and  spices.  Here  repose  the  high  priests 
and  their  retinue,  travelling  with  Oriental  pageantry  to 
take  part  in  some  grand  religious  festival ;  and  here  rests 
for  a  while  the  naked  devotee,  on  his  way  to  fulfil  some 
vow;  perhaps  walking  thousands  of  miles  in  silence,  with 
only  a  parroquet  for  his  companion. 

It  is  common  to  build  temples  in  close  vicinity  to  these 
Banian  forests;  especially  if  there  be  a  lake  or  river  near 
by.  To  provide  such  places  for  the  people  is  deemed  an 
act  of  great  piety,  likely  to  ensure  a  long  enjoyment  of 
Paradise.  A  wealthy  man,  who  was  living  at  Alia  Bhaug 
in  1834,  presented  to  the  public  extensive  groves  and  gar- 
dens, filled  with  fountains,  flowers,  fruit-trees,  and  aro- 
niatic  shrubs,  including  a  lake  covered  with  a  profusion 


ITINDOSTAN,    OR    INDIA,  105 

of  lotus-blossoms.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  beauty,  ho 
erected  a  temple,  declaring  that  he  did  it  "  as  an  accept- 
able sacrifice  to  the  benevolent  deity,  and  a  useful  charity 
to  his  fellow  creatures."  As  usual  in  their  sacred  build- 
ings, the  outer  portion  is  for  public  worship,  while  the 
inner  sanctuary  is  entered  only  by  Bramins,  who  wash  and 
dress  the  images,  and  adorn  them  with  jewels  and  flowers, 
among  which  the  lotus  is  always  conspicuous.  In  front 
is  a  large  tank  of  hewn  stone  for  ablutions,  with  an  obelisk 
at  each  corner,  illuminated  at  festivals.  The  surrounding 
groves  are  lively  with  troops  of  musicians  and  dancing 
girls,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  temple. 

The  Hindoos  have  several  holy  cities,  among  which 
Benares  is  most  esteemed.  They  call  it  "the  Lotus  of  the 
world,"  founded  not  on  common  earth  but  on  the  point  of 
Siva's  trident.  They  consider  the  soil  so  blessed  that 
whoever  dies  there,  of  whatever  sect,  is  sure  of  salvation. 
Even  if  he  has  eaten  beef,  which  they  regard  as  the  great- 
est of  sins,  he  will  be  saved,  provided  he  is  charitable  to 
poor  Bramins  and  dies  at  Benares.  Hindoo  princes  keep 
agents  there  to  offer  sacrifices  for  them.  The  very  aged 
are  carried  thither  and  left  near  the  Ganges,  esteeming 
themselves  most  fortunate,  if  they  can  be  carried  away  by 
the  sacred  stream,  or  devoured  by  its  crocodiles.  Wealthy 
men  in  the  decline  of  life  often  go  there  to  reside,  to  wash 
away  their  sins  in  the  holy  river,  and  secure  rewards  in  a 
future  existence  by  their  benevolence  to  pious  pilgrims. 
Bishop  Heber  speaks  of  "  a  man  of  vast  fortune,  who  on 
his  name-day  (by  which  they  mean  the  day  on  which  his 
patron  god  is  worshipped)  always  gave  a  lai'ge  measure  of 
rice  and  a  rupee  to  every  Bramin,  and  to  every  blind  or 
lame  person,  who  applied  to  him  between  sunrise  and  sun- 
set. This  person  was  reputed  to  be  really  kind  and 
good ;  munificent  from  principle,  not  from  ostentation." 
It  may  readily  be  imagined  that  under  these  circumstances 
Benares  is- a  great  place  of  resort  for  pious  beggars.  The 
number  of  temples  is  exceedingly  great.  "  They  are  most- 
ly small,  and  stuck  like  shrines  in  the  angles  of  the  streets, 

E* 


106  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

and  under  the  shadow  of  the  lofty  houses.  Their  forms, 
however,  are  not  ungraceful,  and  many  of  them  are  en- 
tirely covered  over  with  beautiful  and  elaborate  carvings 
of  flowers,  animals,  and  palm  branches,  equalling  in  mi- 
nuteness and  richness  the  best  specimens  of  Gothic  or  Gre- 
cian architecture.  Bulls  sacred  to  Siva,  tame  and  familiar 
as  mastiffs,  walk  lazily  up  and  down,  or  lie  across  the  nar- 
row streets.  Any  blows  given  to  rouse  them  must  be  of 
the  gentlest  kind,  or  the  whole  population  would  rise  in 
wrath  against  the  offender.  Sacred  monke3^s,  and  the  di- 
vine ape  who  conquered  Ceylon  for  Rama,  are  numerous, 
clinging  to  all  the  roofs  and  projections  of  the  temples, 
putting  their  hands  into  every  fruiterer's  or  confectioner's 
shop,  and  snatching  food  from  the  children  at  their  meals." 
There  was  at  Benares  a  famous  pillar  called  Siva's  Staff, 
a  beautiful  shaft  of  one  stone,  covered  with  exquisite  carv- 
ing. It  originally  stood  inside  a  Hindoo  temple;  but 
when  Mahometans  conquered  the  country,  they  pulled 
down  the  temple  and  built  a  mosque  over  it.  But  pilgrims 
were  still  allowed  to  visit  the  ancient  pillar,  on  condition 
of  giving  half  their  offerings  to  the  Mahometans.  Upon 
the  occasion  of  some  great  religious  festival,  a  quarrel  arose 
in  the  street  between  two  processions,  one  Mahometan  and 
the  other  Hindoo.  The  Mahometans  in  their  fury  broke 
down  Siva's  Staff,  and  the  Hindoos  revenged  themselves 
by  burning  a  mosque.  .  Not  far  off  was  a  consecrated  well, 
the  waters  of  which  were  deemed  peculiarly  holy,  and  all 
Hindoo  pilgrims  were  enjoined  to  drink  of  it  and  use  it  for 
ablution.  The  Mahometans,  exasperated  by  the  burning 
of  their  mosque,  killed  a  cow,  the  most  sacred  of  all 
animals,  and  threw  her  blood  into  this  well.  The  Hindoos 
retaliated  by  throwing  bacon  into  all  the  mosques ;  well 
knowing  that  pork  was  held  in  utter  abomination  by  Ma- 
hometans, and  deemed  to  pollute  whatever  it  touches.  A 
general  fight  ensued,  which  was  finally  quelled  by  the  in- 
terference of  British  troops.  Bishop  Hebcr  says:  "After 
the  tumult  subsided,  there  was  great  mourning  among  the 
nindoos.     The  holy  city  of  Benares  was  profaned.     The 


HINDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  107 

blood  of  a  cow  had  been  mixed  with  the  sacred  water,  and 
salvation  could  be  obtained  at  Benares  no  longer.  All  the 
Bramins  in  the  city,  many  thousands,  went  through  the 
streets  in  melancholy  procession,  naked  and  fasting,  with 
ashes  'on  their  heads ;  and  for  two  or  three  days  they 
refused  to  enter  a  house,  or  taste  of  food.  The  gaunt, 
squalid  figures  of  the  devotees,  their  unaffected  anguish 
and  dismay,  and  the  screams  of  the  women  who  sur- 
rounded them,  formed  a  very  impressive  scene.  The 
British  magistrates  tried  their  utmost  to  reason  with  and 
console  them.  At  last,  they  concluded  that  Ganges  was 
Ganges  still,  and  that  a  succession  of  costly  offerings  in  the 
temples  might  possibly  wash  out  the  stain  the  holy  city 
had  received.  Over  the  prostrate  pillar  they  mourned 
much.  Tradition  declared  it  had  been  twice  as  high,  and 
had  been  gradualh'  sinking  into  the  ground  ;  and  there 
was  a  prophecy  that  when  it  became  level  to  the  earth,  the 
religion  of  Brahma  would  come  to  an  end,  and  all  men  be 
of  one  caste.  Sorrowfully  the  Bramins  gazed  upon  it,  and 
said,  *  Alas,  Siva's  Staff  has  its  head  level  with  the  ground. 
We  shall  all  be  of  one  caste  shortly.  What  will  be  our 
religion  then  ?' " 

The  Coast  of  Orissa  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the 
holy  places  of  Ilindostan.  It  is  said  that  one  million  two 
hundred  thousand  pilgrims  flock  thither  annually,  to  the 
great  festival  of  Juggernaut.  Immense  numbers  die  of  the 
hardships  of  long  travel ;  of  famine,  from  scarcity  of  pro- 
visions to  feed  such  a  multitude;  by  imprisonment,  for 
non-payment  of  tribute  to  the  Bramins  ;  and  by  suicide,  to 
expiate  sins,  or  secure  future  rewards  in  Paradise.  ]\[iles 
of  this  country  are  covered  with  human  bones,  whitening 
in  the  sun.  Juggernaut  is  represented  by  a  gigantic 
wooden  image,  with  black  face,  blood-red  distended  mouth, 
golden  arms  and  diamond  eyes.  It  is  renewed  every  three 
years.  The  bones  of  Crishna  are  deposited  within  it;  and 
when  the  Bramin  takes  them  out,  to  transfer  them  to  the 
new  image,  he  shuts  his  eyes  lest  a  sight  of  the  holy  relics 
should  strike  him  dead.     The  image  of  Boloram,  brother 


108  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

of  Juggernaut,  is  painted  white,  and  his  sister  Shubudra 
yellow.  A  hundred  lamps  are  continually  burning  before 
them,  and  fifty-six  Bramins  attend  upon  them.  They 
present  to  them  offerings  of  various  kinds  of  food,  bathe 
them  six  times  a  day  with  water,  oil,  and  milk,  and  dress 
them  each  time  in  fresh  clothes.  At  the  great  annual  fes- 
tival, these  three  images  are  gorgeously  decorated,  seated 
on  thrones  of  nearly  equal  height,  and  placed  in  a  huge 
car,  sixty  feet  high,  adorned  with  costly  ornaments,  and 
sculptured  all  over  with  sexual  emblems.  On  each  side 
are  sixteen  enormous  wheels,  which  cut  deep  into  the 
ground,  as  it  slowly  rolls  along.  It  is  preceded  by  ele- 
phants, dressed  in  crimson,  bearing  flags,  and  decorated 
with  bells,  that  sound  musically  as  they  move.  Mul- 
titudes of  Bramins  wave  palm  branches,  recite  extracts 
from  their  Sacred  Books,  and  sing  hymns  in  honour  of  Jug- 
gernaut. Troops  of  Devedasses  dance  around  the  car, 
while  swarms  of  devotees,  many  of  them  naked,  perform 
innumerable  ceremonies,  and  make  gestures,  which  to  an 
unbelieving  spectator  seem  very  indecent.  The  crowd 
thrust  each  other  violently  for  the  privilege  of  seizing  the 
ropes  by  which  the  chariot  is  drawn.  Many  throw  them- 
selves across  the  street,  deeming  themselves  sure  of  sal- 
vation if  they  can  be  crushed  to  death  by  the  wheels ;  and 
whenever  this  occurs,  the  multitude  shout  aloud  in  ap- 
probation. At  this  festival  all  distinctions  arc  laid  aside 
for  the  time ;  Bramin  and  Pariah  can  eat  together  without 
pollution. 

On  ])ilgri mages  to  these  holy  places,  processions  of  dif- 
ferent sects  often  fight  by  the  way,  to  determine  whose 
temples  shall  be  enriched  by  the  taxes  levied  on  pilgrims. 
At  one  of  their  great  religious  festivals  in  1760,  a  battle 
occurred  between  the  Sivaitesand  the  Vishnuites,  in  which 
the  latter  had  eighteen  thousand  men  killed. 

Thousands  of  people  arc  employed  in  carrying  water  to 
the  tetn[)le  of  Juggernaut  from  an  aperture  in  the  rocks, 
called  the  Cow's  Mouth,  whence  the  Ganges  issues.  They 
travel  more  than  two  thousand  miles,  with  two  flasks  of 


HIXDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  109 

water  slung  across  their  shoulders  on  a  piece  of  elastic 
bamboo.  The  labour  thus  expended  would  long  since  have 
converted  the  whole  country  into  a  highly  cultivated  garden. 
It  is  often  done  as  penance  for  the  lighter  sorts  of  sins. 
Women  of  rank,  not  venturing  to  appear  in  public,  pay 
others  to  carry  it  for  them.  Princes  and  wealthy  persons 
have  this  holy  water  conveyed  to  them  in  all  parts  of  Hin- 
dostan.  It  is  used  at  feasts,  as  well  as  upon  religious  festivals. 
A  gentleman  in  Ceylon  drank  this  water  daily,  brought  three 
thousand  miles,  at  the  expense  of  five  thousand  rupees  per 
month.  x\s  the  Ganges  is  supposed  to  descend  from  Para- 
dise, its  waters  increase  in  holiness  the  nearer  they  approach 
its  source.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  millions  of  pil- 
grims, from  various  districts  and  countries,  visit  the  place 
where  two  rivers  unite  to  form  the  Ganges;  and  many 
thousands  scramble  up  the  steep  precipices  of  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  where  a  shrine  is  erected  over  the  spot  whence 
it  issues  from  under  eternal  snows. 

Women  have  never  been  admitted  to  the  priesthood  by 
any  of  the  sects.  The  Code  of  Menu  forbids  women  and 
children  to  devote  themselves  to  the  ascetic  life.  But  in 
the  Pouranas  are  mentioned  some  who  retired  into  the  soli- 
tude of  the  forests,  and  became  celebrated  saints.  The 
mother  of  Crishna  vowed  herself  to  perpetual  contempla- 
tion, and  attained  to  complete  absorption  in  God.  A  story 
is  likewise  told  of  a  child  five  years  old,  who  went  into  the 
forest  and  performed  most  painful  penances  in  honour  of 
Vishnu.  But  this  was  an  exceptional  extravagance,  origi- 
nating in  the  popular  admiration  for  ascetics,  which  fired 
the  boy's  imagination  and  tempted  him  to  imitation.  In 
Malabar,  the  memory  of  several  saintly  women  is  held  in 
high  veneration;  particularly  one  named  Avyar,  whose 
wise  sayings  have  become  proverbs.  The  ancient  Jains 
denied  that  a  woman  could  attain  the  highest  degree  of 
holiness,  and  discountenanced  their  devoting  themselves  to 
the  religious  life.  But  this  might  have  arisen  from  jealous 
care  of  their  modesty;  for  in  later  times,  when  it  was  the 
custom  for  the  saints  to  wear  white  robes,  instead  of  2:oinor 
Vol.  [.—10 


110  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

naked,  thej  granted  tliat  women  also  might  arrive  at  a 
state  of  perfect  sanctity.  From  the  most  ancient  time,  a 
class  of  women  called  Devedasses  were  devoted  in  early 
childhood  to  the  service  of  the  temple.  They  are  often 
infants  consecrated  by  their  mothers  to  some  god,  in  fulfil- 
ment of  a  religious  vow.  Being  deemed  an  honourable 
way  of  providing  for  daughters,  as  well  as  a  sacrifice  highly 
acceptable  to  the  deity,  even  princes  are  desirous  of  ob- 
taining the  situation  for  their  children.  It  is  required  that 
they  should  be  health}',  wdth  pleasing  features  and  grace- 
ful forms.  The  Devedasses  bathe  the  little  novitiate  in  a 
pool  belonging  to  the  temple,  dress  her  in  new  robes,  and 
ornament  her  with  jewels.  The  presiding  Bramin  puts 
into  her  hand  an  image  of  the  deity,  and  teaches  her  to  re- 
peat a  solemn  vow  of  dedication  to  his  service.  Her  ears 
are  then  bored  and  the  seal  of  the  temple  imprinted  on  her 
with*  red-hot  iron.  She  is  taught  to  read,  write,  dance, 
sing,  and  play  on  musical  instruments.  No  other  women 
in  Hindostan,  not  even  those  of  the  highest  rank,  are  al- 
lowed to  read  and  write.  Many  frightful  stories  are  in  cir- 
culation concerning  the  disasters  sure  to  befall  a  woman 
bold  enough  to  attempt  such  an  innovation.  Even  Deve- 
dasses are  not  permitted  to  look  into  the  Sacred  Books. 
Their  scanty  education  is  employed  in  learning  verses  and 
legends  concerning  the  gods,  to  recite  at  public  solemnities. 
It  is  their  business  to  gather  flowers  for  the  temple,  light 
the  lamps,  and  perform  the  dancing  and  singing  in  reli- 
gious ceremonies.  About  the  waist,  arms,  and  ankles,  they 
wear  little  bells  of  silver  or  gold,  which  make  a  monotonous 
tinkling  as  they  move,  and  mingle  rather  pleasantly  with 
the  small  drums,  tambourines,  and  silver  cymbals,  to  which 
they  keep  time.  They  hold  wooden  castanets,  which  they 
strike  in  cadence,  all  making  precisely  the  same  move- 
ments and  gestures  at  the  same  moment.  At  the  end  of 
each  dance,  they  all  turn  toward  the  idol,  and  adore  him 
with  hands  clasped  before  their  faces.  They  receive  food, 
clothing,  and  pay,  from  the  funds  of  the  temple.  Five  or 
six  hundred  arc  employed  in  the  temple  of  Juggernaut, 


HIXDOSTAa^,    ok   INDIA.  Ill 

At  the  great  annual  festival,  one  is  chosen  for  a  bride  to 
the  god,  to  whom  it  is  supposed  he  comes  in  the  night  and 
reveals  whether  it  will  be  a  fruitful  year,  and  what  kind  of 
feasts,  processions,  prayers  and  contributions  he  requires 
from  the  people  in  order  to  secure  it.  She  is  placed  in 
the  chariot  with  the  idol,  and  as  it  slowly  rolls  along,  she 
proclaims  tliese  oracles  to  the  believing  multitude. 

The  Devedasses  are  not  allowed  to  quit  the  precincts  of 
the  temple,  or  to  marr3^  Some  say  they  are  allowed  to 
receive  no  lovers  but  Bramins;  others  declare  they  are  at 
liberty  to  choose  among  any  of  the  three  higher  castes. 
The  money  thus  obtained  is  put  into  the  treasury  of  the 
temple.  If  they  have  daughters,  they  are  brought  up  in  the 
same  way  as  themselves;  if  sons,  they  are  trained  to  play 
on  musical  instruments  and  assist  the  priests.  When  these 
women  become  old  or  unhealthy,  or  the  Bramins  wish  to 
have  them  leave  for  any  reason,  they  are  dismissed ;  but 
they  are  ever  after  received  in  society  with  peculiar  re- 
spect. A  degree  of  sanctity  is  attached  to  them,  and  it  is 
considered  an  honour  to  marry  them.  Sometimes,  however, 
if  they  are  old  when  they  retire  from  service,  they  are  re- 
duced to  poverty,  unless  they  have  a  handsome  daughter, 
on  whose  earnings  they  can  rcl}'. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  are  suicides  so  extremely  com- 
mon as  in  India.  Thousands  perish  every  year  by  drown- 
ing in  the  sacred  rivers,  lying  in  wait  for  crocodiles, 
starving,  burning,  and  causing  themselves  to  be  buried 
alive.  This  doubtless  originates  in  the  prevailing  idea 
that  the  connection  of  spirit  with  matter  is  an  evil,  and 
the  destruction  of  the  body  a  sacrifice  acceptable  to  the 
deities.  The  number  of  women  who  voluntarily  seek 
death  is  much  greater  than  that  of  men  ;  for  in  addition  to 
their  belief  in  the  same  melancholy  creed,  life  is  far  lesa 
free  to  them,  and  their  abject  situation  requires  more  severe 
repression  of  all  the  natural  sentiments  and  instincts.  To 
be  born  again  into  a  female  form  thej^  dread  as  one  of  the 
worst  punishments.  To  avoid  it,  they  perform  innumera- 
ble religious  ceremonies,  and  subject  themselves  to  most 


112  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

painful  penances.  Wlien  the  custom  first  began  of  women 
barning  themselves  on  the  funeral  pile  of  their  husbands, 
is  unknown.  It  probably  originated  in  the  univei'sal  prac- 
tice of  offering  sacrifices  at  funerals,  and  at  tombs,  to 
expiate  the  sins  of  the  deceased.  Perhaps  some  zealous 
devotee  voluntarily  set  the  example,  and  many  motives 
would  naturally  combine  to  fix  it  as  a  custom.  This  self- 
immolation  is  called  Suttee,  more  properly  Sati,  a  Sanscrit 
word  meaning  purification.  It  is  not  enjoined  in  any  of 
their  Sacred  Writings,  but  some  of  their  celebrated  saints 
commend  it  as  highly  mei'itorious ;  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  extracts: — "So  long  as  a  woman  does  not 
burn  herself  after  the  death  of  her  lord,  she  will  be  subject 
to  transmio-rations  into  the  female  form."  "The  woman 
who  follows  her  lord  in  death  expiates  the  sins  of  three 
races;  her  father's  line,  her  mother's  line,  and  the  family 
of  him  to  whom  she  was  given  a  virgin."  "Even  though 
her  husband  had  slain  a  Bramin,  or  returned  evil  for  good, 
or  killed  an  intimate  friend,  the  woman  expiates  his 
crimes."  "  Possessing  her  husband  as  her  chiefest  good, 
herself  the  best  of  women,  enjoying  the  highest  delights, 
she  shall  partake  of  bliss  with  him  as  long  as  fourteen 
Indras  reign." 

The  professed  rule  is  that  the  immolation  must  be  per- 
fectly voluntary;  and  since  such  rewards  were  offered  in 
Paradise,  in  addition  to  the  applause  of  multitudes  on 
earth,  while  on  the  other  hand  law  and  custom  condemned 
every  widow  to  an  extremely  secluded  and  gloomy  life,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  great  numbers  rushed  on  such  a  fate 
with  religious  ecstasy,  or  the  courage  of  despair.  A 
Bramin  of  Bngnapore  had  more  than  a  hundred  wives. 
Twent3'-two  of  them  were  burned  with  his  corpse,  though 
several  of  them  had  seldom  even  seen  the  man  for  whom 
they  died.  The  fire  was  kept  burning  three  days,  waiting 
the  arrival  of  successive  victims.  A  woman  is  never  al- 
lowed to  marry  again,  or  even  to  mention  the  name  of 
another  man,  after  the  death  of  her  husband  or  betrothed. 
As  tiiey  are  often  mated  by  parents  in  infancy,  they  may 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  113 

be  left  widows  while  very  small  cliildren  :  but  nevertlielcss 
they  disgrace  themselves  if  they  depart  from  a  life  of  per- 
petual chastity.  Those  who  are  thus  left  desolate  often 
sacrifice  themselves,  eitlier  from  religious  zeal  or  weariness 
of  life.  A  girl  whose  betrothed  died  when  she  was  six 
years  old,  is  mentioned  as  having  performed  the  Sati  at 
fifteen.  No  entreaties  could  prevail  upon  her  to  relinquish 
her  project.  An  immolation  performed  with  great  firm- 
ness was  a  subject  of  family  pride,  and  recounted  to  suc- 
ceeding generations.  AVidows  sometimes  mounted  the 
funeral  pile  with  heroic  enthusiasm,  laid  the  husband's 
head  on  their  knees,  and  themselves  brandished  a  torch  to 
light  the  pile.  But  these  sacrifices  were  not  always  volun- 
tary, even  when  they  appeared  so.  Husbands,  clinging  to 
the  idea  of  exclusive  possession,  even  after  death,  often  left 
injunctions  to  their  wives  to  make  the  offering,  and  to 
their  heirs  to  urge  them  to  it.  Women  hold  no  property, 
and  it  was  the  interest  of  relatives,  on  whom  the  widow 
would  depend  entirely  for  support,  to  excite  their  religious 
zeal  sufficiently  to  make  them  brave  the  terrors  of  this 
fiery  ordeal.  If  the  courage  of  the  poor  creature  failed  at 
the  last  dreadful  moment,  and  she  succeeded  in  making 
her  escape,  she  sunk  into  irretrievable  disgrace,  which  was 
reflected  on  her  kindred.  Therefore,  when  such  symptoms 
were  discovered,  Bramins  tied  down  the  victim  with  strong 
cords,  and  while  the  flames  rose,  her  screams  were  drowned 
in  the  din  of  musical  instruments. 

After  a  long  contest  with  Hindoo  prejudices,  the  British 
government  at  last  succeeded  in  abolishing  this  cruel  cus- 
tom wherever  they  had  jurisdiction.  The  women  were 
generally  most  grateful  to  them  for  the  change.  They  are 
gentle,  affectionate,  and  devotional ;  extremely  fond  of 
carrying  oiferings  to  the  temples,  and  performing  religious 
ceremonies  in  the  sacred  groves. 

The  belief  in  a  universal  interchange  of  souls  throughout 

sreation  produces  singular  ideas  and  customs  with  regard 

to  animals.     Vishnu  assumes  their  shape  as  frequently  as 

he  docs  that  of  man.     They  are  not  only  represented  as 

Vol.  I.— 10* 


114  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

constant  companions  and  friends  of  the  deities,  l)ut  often 
as  being  themselves  of  divine  intelligence,  dwelling  iu 
Paradise,  and  occasionally  incarnated  on  earth,  to  assist 
the  god  to  whose  service  thej  were  devoted.  Garuda, 
prince  of  the  eagles,  is  supposed  to  guard  the  entrance  of 
Vishmvs  Paradise.  Hanuman,  prince  of  the  monkeys, 
assumed  the  form  of  an  ape,  and  rendered  important  ser- 
vices to  Vishnu  while  on  earth  in  the  person  of  Rama. 
There  are  numerous  other  similar  instances.  In  the  Ra- 
mayana  it  is  stated  that  Garuda,  having  sinned  in  thought 
against  his  divine  master,  went  in  penitent  guise  to  seek 
counsel  from  the  crow  Bhusanda,  who  dwelt  on  the  lofty 
summits  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  had  been  devoted  to 
the  service  of  Rama  from  his  birth.  This  crow  was  "ex- 
perienced in  virtues  and  vices;  well  acquainted  with  all 
that  had  happened  since  the  beginning  of  time ;  sometimes 
wrapped  in  profound  meditation  on  the  being  of  God ;  at 
others  pouring  forth  invocations,  and  proclaiming  the 
praises  of  Vishnu  to  the  birds  of  land  and  water."  He 
became  the  instructor  of  Garuda,  and  informed  him  that 
he  had  once  been  a  Bramin,  but  had  passed  into  a  crow,  in 
consequence  of  maledictions  pronounced  upon  him  by  a 
powerful  saint.  With  these  ideas,  no  wonder  the  brute 
creation  are  regarded  with  tenderness  and  reverence. 
Bulls  and  cows  are  sacred  in  the  highest  degree,  espe- 
cially tlie  latter,  on  account  of  a  cow  in  Paradise,  styled, 
"  Mother  of  the  gods,  and  of  three  worlds."  Even  the 
dung  of  this  animal  is  sacred,  and  is  used  in  many  religious 
ceremonies.  Hindoos  will  die  rather  than  taste  of  beef ;  a 
fact  which  has  been  often  proved  on  board  vessels  where  all 
the  provisions  were  expended  except  salt  beef.  The  pun- 
ishment for  selling  a  bullock  to  a  European  is  to  be  impaled 
alive.  Monkeys  are  sacred,  on  account  of  Hanuman, 
famous  in  th(3  exploits  of  Rama.  Rajahs  and  nobles  often 
expend  larger  sums  to  celebrate  a  festival  in  honour  of 
those  animals.  A  monkey,  or  an  ape,  on  such  occasions,  ia 
seated  in  a  splendid  pulanquin,  and  followed  by  musicians, 
singers,  and   dancing   girls,   amid    a  goi'geous  shower  of 


IIIXDOSTAX,    Oil    INDIA.  115 

tire-works.  Two  British  officers,  who  shot  a  monkey 
during  one  of  their  huntiwg  excursions,  were  driven  by  a 
mob  of  devotees  into  the  river  Jumna,  where  they  perished. 
In  Jaianapatan,  an  ape's  tooth,  believed  to  be  Hanuman's, 
was  preserved  for  centuries  as  a  rehc  in  the  temple,  and 
many  ])ilgrimages  were  made  to  see  it.  After  the  Portu- 
guese conquered  that  part  of  the  country,  the  Hindoos  sent 
an  embassy  to  them  offering  three  hundred  thousand  ducats 
for  the  recovery  of  this  treasure.  But,  by  advice  of  the 
Catholic  Bishop,  the  tooth  was  burned  in  presence  of  the 
ambassadors,  and  its  ashes  thrown  into  the  sea.  A  cunning 
man  afterward  persuaded  them  to  buy  another  tooth,  repre- 
senting that  an  invisible  power  had  substituted  a  false 
tooth  to  be  burned  by  unbelievers,  and  miraculously  saved 
the  true  one.  The  Crocodile  is  another  of  their  sacred 
animals.  Hindoo  mothers  are  remarkable  for  passionate 
love  of  offspring,  yet  they  often  throw  their  infants  into 
the  jaws  of  these  monsters,  believing  they  thus  propitiate 
the  deities  and  secure  the'  child's  salvation.  The  hooded 
serpent  Cobra  do  Capello  is  sacred,  on  account  of  its  asso- 
ciation with  Vishnu.  Some  other  species  of  serpents  are 
regarded  by  them  as  peculiarly  the  protecting  Spirits  of 
gardens  and  vineyards,  and  therefore  they  will  not  consent 
to  destroy  them.  Indeed  all  animals  have  a  degree  of 
sacredness  to  a  devout  Hindoo,  arising  from  the  belief  that 
each  one  is  a  manifested  portion  of  God.  Voracious  and 
unclean  creatures  they  believe  to  be  the  residence  of  malig- 
nant Spirits  and  bad  souls.  Those  that  subsist  on  vege- 
tables are  supposed  to  be  favoured  by  divine  beings.  They 
peculiarly  venerate  ants  and  bees,  conceiving  the  Spirits 
which  animate  them  to  be  gifted  with  superior  intelligence. 
Tiiey  believe  every  animal  is  endowed  with  thought  and 
memory,  and  has  some  comprehensive  mode  of  communi- 
cating ideas  to  its  own  species. 

At  Surat  is  a  Banian  hospital,  enclosed  with  high  walls 
and  divided  into  courts,  where  diseased  and  aged  animals 
are  watched  with  tenderest  care.  When  an  animal  breaks 
his  limb,  or  is  otherwise  disabled,  his  master  carries  him 


116  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

to  the  hospital,  where  he  is  received  without  reference  to 
the  caste  or  nation  of  his  owner.  If  he  recovers,  he  cannot 
be  rechiimed,  but  remains  to  draw  water  for  other  creatures 
not  able  to  work.  When  Sir  James  Forbes  visited  this 
place,  it  was  full  of  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  monkeys, 
poultry,  birds,  and  an  aged  tortoise,  known  to  have  been 
there  seventy-five  years.  One  ward  was  appropriated  to 
rats,  mice,  and  vermin.  The  overseers  frequently  hired 
beggars  for  a  stipidated  sum  to  pass  a  night  among  fleas  and 
bugs,  on  condition  of  allowing  them  a  feast  without  moles- 
tation. 

Pious  pilgrims  are  often  met  on  the  road  carrying  a  soft 
broom  to  sweep  the  ground,  lest  they  should  tread  on  in- 
sects, and  with  nostrils  covered  to  avoid  inhaling  them.  A 
learned  Bramin,  much  interested  in  science,  took  great  de- 
light in  exploring  the  library  of  an  English  resident,  who 
one  day  showed  him  a  solar  microscope,  to  convince  hira 
that  the  precautions  of  devotees  were  useless,  inasmuch  as 
every  draught  of  water  was  filled  with  animalculas.  The 
Bramin  became  very  thoughtful,  and  offered  large  sums 
for  the  instrument.  Being  difficult  to  obtain  in  India,  the 
owner  for  some  time  refused;  but  at  last,  overcome  by  re- 
peated importunities,  he  gave  it  to  him.  He  instantly 
seized  a  large  stone  and  dashed  the  microscope  into  a 
thousand  atoms.  In  answer  to  the  angry  expostulations 
of  his  foreign  friend,  he  said :  "  O  that  I  had  remained  in 
the  happy  state  of  ignorance  wherein  you  found  me !  As 
my  knowledge  increased  so  did  my  pleasure,  until  I  beheld 
the  wonders  of  that  instrument.  From  that  momeiit  I 
have  been  tormented  with  doubt  and  perplexed  by  mj^stery. 
I  am  now  a  solitary  individiud  among  millions  of  people 
all  educated  in  the  same  belief  with  myself;  all  happy  in 
their  ignorance.  So  may  they  ever  renuiin  !  I  shall  keep 
the  secret  in  my  own  bosom,  whei'e  it  will  corrode  my 
peace  and  disturb  my  rest.  Forgive  me,  my  valuable 
friend;  and,  O,  bring  here  no  more  implements  of  knowl- 
edge and  destruction." 

Many  causes  have  been  at  work  to  produce  a  gradual 


niNDOSTAX,    OR   INDIA.  117 

degeneracy  in  the  manners,  customs,  and  opinions  of  the 
Hindoos.  Knowledge  of  the  Vedas  is  confined  to  the 
learned,  and  few  ever  heard  of  such  a  doctrine  as  the  unity 
of  God.  The  great  mass  of  tlic  people  are  neglected  by 
the  Bramins,  who  are  either  taken  up  Avith  the  acquisition 
of  temporal  power,  or  striving  to  obtain  spiritual  elevation 
for  themselves,  by  contemplation  and  penances.  Such  in- 
struction as  the  populace  do  receive,  rather  serves  to  con- 
fuse their  moral  perceptions.  Thefts,  perjury,  or  murder, 
may  be  atoned  for  by  presents  to  the  priests,  and  the  per- 
formance of  prescribed  ceremonies,  without  farther  incon- 
venience to  the  culprit ;  while  killing  a  cow,  selling  beef 
to  a  European,  offending  a  Bramin,  or  being  converted  to 
a  foreign  religion,  involves  either  the  penalty  of  death,  or 
total  excommunication  from  society  by  loss  of  caste. 
Everywhere  the  limitations  of  caste  come  in  to  narrow  the 
sympathies  and  impede  the  progress  of  intellect.  Hindoos 
are  by  nature  remarkably  kind,  gentle,  and  charitable;  but 
their  tender-heartedness  disappears  the  moment  it  comes 
in  collision  with  the  laws  of  caste.  If  a  Bramin  sees  a 
Pariah  drowning,  he  must  not  even  extend  a  long  pole  to 
save  him ;  for  by  so  doing  he  would  incur  pollution  in- 
volving loss  of  caste.  A  Christian  missionary  ventured 
to  employ  a  converted  Pariah  to  teach  other  Hindoo  con- 
verts; but  they  protested  strongly  against  such  an  innova- 
tion. "  How  is  it  possible,"  said  they,  "  to  allow  a  Pariah 
to  come  into  our  houses  to  pray?"  Four  hundred  persons 
left  the  congregation  in  consequence,  but  twenty  remained 
to  hear  the  Christian  Scriptures  read  by  a  man  who  was 
socially  their  inferior;  and  those  twenty  were  more  val- 
uable than  the  four  hundred  would  have  been,  with  the 
Pariah  silenced. 

Hindoo  worship  makes  no  provision  for  the  instruction 
of  the  people  in  religious  ideas  or  moral  duties.  It  con- 
sists of  a  routine  of  ceremonies.  Every  image  is  regularly 
sei'ved  with  rice,  fruit,  and  flowers,  which  after  a  prescribed 
time  are  removed  for  the  use  of  priests  and  their  attendants. 
Perfumes  and  incense  are  considered  among  the  most 
acceptable  offerings.    Large  quantities  of  frankincense  were 


118  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

carried  from  Arabia  to  Ilindostan  at  a  period  so  remote 
that  the  use  of  it  is  mentioned  in  the  ancient  poem, 
Rumaj^ana.  Among  consecrated  plants,  the  Soma,  or 
Moon  Plant,  is  peculiarly  sacred.  The  juice  is  a  holy 
drink  which  Bramins  taste  on  certain  religious  occasions, 
after  having  offered  prescribed  prayers.  They  say  it  is  not 
necessary  to  understand  the  prayers  which  they  mechani- 
cally repeat  from  the  Vedas.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  what 
deity  is  addressed,  and  what  event  is  the  occasion  for  sup- 
plication or  thanksgiving.  In  many  cases,  mysterious 
virtue  is  ascribed  to  reciting  the  form  of  words  alternately 
backward  and  forward. 

Religious  models  for  the  people  are  of  a  lower  character 
than  they  were  in  the  ancient  times.  There  are  now  i'ew 
devotees  who  attempt  to  copy  the  austere  virtue  of  old 
hei'mits ;  but  popular  reverence  for  such  characters  has 
produced  a  swarm  of  mendicants,  who  imitate  only  their 
extravagancies.  These  are  often  described  by  travellers 
under  the  name  of  Fakeers,  or  Yogees.  On  their  forehead 
and  arms  they  usually  wear  the  perpendicular  line  emblem- 
atic of  Sivaites,  or  the  horizontal  line  of  Vishnuites. 
It  is  marked  by  the  priests  with  a  composition  made  of 
burnt  sandal-wood,  tumeric,  and  cow-dung.  Doubtless 
many  of  these  devotees  sincerely  believe  that  they  expiate 
their  own  sins  and  those  of  others,  by  their  severe  suffer- 
ings. Some  dig  a  grave  and  remain  buried  in  the  earth, 
leaving  only  a  small  aperture  for  the  admission  of  food. 
An  English  gentleman  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calcutta, 
perceiving  a  strange-looking  creature  in  a  hole  of  the 
ground,  beat  it  till  the  blood  flowed,  without  causing  any 
movement,  or  any  remonstrance.  It  was  a  Fakeer  who 
had  vowed  himself  to  that  mode  of  torture.  Some  stand 
in  one  constrained  posture  for  years  and  years.  Others 
crawl  on  their  hands  and  knees  round  an  extensive  empire. 
Some  roll  their  bodies  over  the  ground  from  Indus  to 
Ganges,  collecting  money  to  dig  a  well,  or  build  a  temple, 
in  atonement  for  some  sin.  Many  of  them  go  entirely 
naked,  and  come  to  look  like  wild  beasts,  with  nails  of 


IIINDOSTAX,    OR    IXDIA.  119 

twenty  3'cars  growth,  dirty  matted  hair,  and  arms  withered 
by  being  held  aloft  for  years.  Women  of  distinction  com 
pete  with  each  other  for  the  honour  of  feeding  such  saints. 

All  of  this  class  do  not  renounce  the  world  so  completely. 
There  are  communities  of  them,  on  whom  the  devout 
bestow  houses  and  lands.  They  make  money  by  agricul- 
ture and  trade,  and  send  out  beggars  to  procure  alms. 
There  is  a  community  of  Sivaite  saints,  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  sell  their  military  services  to  the  highest  bidder: 
being  willing  to  fight  against  everything  but  their  own 
religion.  They  stimulate  their  courage  by  excessive  use 
of  intoxicating  herbs  and  drinks,  though  wine  and  spiritu- 
ous liquors  are  strictly  forbidden  by  their  Sacred  Books, 
and  ceremonies  of  purification  are  prescribed  for  a  religious 
man  who  has  merely  drank  water  from  vessels  that  have 
contained  such  liquors.  Associations  of  female  devotees, 
said  to  be  far  from  austere  in  their  lives,  reside  in  some  of 
the  temples  of  Siva.  The  Fakeers  usually  wear  garments 
of  yellowish  red,  similar  in  colour  to  the  bark-cloth  worn  by 
ancient  anchorites.  There  appears  to  be  sacredness  attached 
to  the  colour;  for  there  is  an  express  law  forbidding  Bramins 
to  sell  red  cloth,  or  woven  bark. 

Like  the  ascetic  sages  of  ancient  time,  these  modern 
Fakeers  are  great  travellers.  They  are  met  everywhere, 
from  the  confines  of  Russia  to  Cape  Comorin,  from  China 
to  Bombay.  They  wander  about  in  armed  troops,  on  pil- 
grimages to  holy  cities  and  sacred  wells,  levying  contribu- 
tions as  they  go.  To  extort  charity  from  passengers,  they 
stun  their  ears  with  loud  bells,  or  strike  together  plates  of 
brass.  Some  of  them  are  handsome,  robust  men.  They 
eat  everything  but  beef,  and  are  often  immoderate  in  the 
use  of  food  and  intoxicating  liquors.  When  they  arrive 
at  villages,  they  dance  and  sing  songs  describing  the  amours 
of  Siva  or  Crishna,  for  which  they  receive  a  reward  of  food 
or  money.  On  one  occasion,  Bombay  was  so  infested  by 
these  mendicants,  that  they  became  an  intolerable  nuisance. 
The  governor  deemed  it  imprudent  to  make  any  direct 
attempt  to  disperse  them.     But  he  issued  an  order  that  all 


120  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

beggars  and  idlers  should  be  set  to  cleaning  the  great  ditch 
surrounding  the  fortifications,  and  the  next  day  not  one  of 
the  saintly  fraternity  was  to  be  found.  Bishop  Heber, 
speaking  of  the  sacred  city  of  Benares,  says:  "  Fakeers' 
houses  occur  at  every  turn,  adorned  with  idols,  and  send- 
ing out  an  unceasing  tinkling  of  discordant  instruments; 
while  religious  mendicants  of  every  sect,  offering  every 
conceivable  deformity,  which  chalk,  cow-dung,  disease, 
matted  locks,  distorted  limbs,  and  disgustino-  attitudes  of 
penance,  could  show,  literally  line  the  principal  streets  on 
both  sides.  I  saw  repeatedly  men  who  had  kept  their 
handS^ clenched  till  the  nails  grew  out  at  the  backs;  or 
hopping  on  one  foot,  the  other  having  shrunk  close  up  to 
the  hams,  from  a  vow  never  to  use  it.  Devotees  go  about 
with  small  spears  thrust  through  their  tongues  and  arms, 
or  with  hot  irons  pressed  against  their  sides.  Their  coun- 
tenances denote  sufltering,  but  they  evidently  glory  in 
patient  endurance,  thinking  doubtless  that  they  are  exjiia- 
ting  sins  by  their  agony.  These  beggars  keep  up  the  most 
pitiful  cry  for  alms."  Among  some  sects,  persons  of  every 
caste,  even  Pariahs,  can  become  Fakeers.  These  are  little 
respected  by  the  higher  classes  of  Hindostan,  and  the 
Bramins  especially  avoid  them.  Yet  some  of  the  Bramins 
themselves  are  by  no  means  worthy  of  the  reverence  which 
their  station  and  office  demands.  Within  the  temples  they 
not  unfrequently  fight  and  scratch  each  other,  scrambling 
for  the  fees  and  oflPerings.  In  days  of  primitive  simplicity 
a  Bramin  was  not  allowed  to  take  a  second  wife,  unless  the 
first  bore  him  no  children,  or  committed  some  great  mis- 
demeanc^r ;  but  they  now  marry  fifteen,  twenty,  or  a 
hundred  wives,  as  suits  their  convenience.  The  Code  of 
Menu  strictly  forbids  receiving  money  or  gifts  in  exchange 
for  a  daughter  or  female  relative;  but  in  these  days, 
parents,  even  of  the  highest  castes,  do  not  scruple  to  dis- 
])OSC  of  young  daughters  to  whoever  will  pay  the  most, 
tliough  lie  be  old  or  diseased.  The  expenses  for  the  main- 
t(Miance  of  the  ])rifstli()od  an;  enormous.  One  temple  in 
the  Dcccaii  mainlaiiied  forty  thousand  olficiating  Bramins. 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  121 

besides  a  great  number  of  Devedasses.  Of  course  it  is  for 
their  interest  to  inculcate  a  blind  unquestioning  faith  in  all 
they  teach,  and  to  load  }3opular  worship  with  images  and 
ceremonies,  for  all  of  which  they  receive  pay.  It  being 
admitted  that  images  were  necessary  for  the  ignorant,  as 
pictures  are  for  children,  and  these  images  commanding  a 
ready  sale,  they  of  course  multiplied  rapidly.  They  are 
of  every  variety  of  size  and  material,  from  gold  to  wood 
and  clay,  from  thirty  feet  high  to  a  finger  in  length.  They 
are  generally  grotesque,  deformed  things,  made  by  the 
smith  and  the  potter,  or  rudely  fashioned  by  the  humble 
worshippers  in  preparation  for  some  festival.  The  Bramins 
reconcile  this  with  the  Veda  doctrine  of  God's  unity,  by 
saying  these  are  mere  subordinate  agents  fulliUing  various 
offices  in  the  universe  under  One  Ruler.  But  the  populace 
have  no  such  idea.  They  believe  all  these  gods  and 
goddesses  to  be  independent  deities,  with  supreme  power 
over  the  departments  they  govern.  When  a  Hindoo  buys 
an  image,  he  goes  to  the  priest  to  have  certain  ceremonies 
performed  over  it,  which  are  supposed  to  endow  it  not  only 
with  life,  but  with  supernatural  power.  If  the  idol  be 
masculine,  another  ceremony  must  be  performed  to  marry 
him  to  the  image  of  some  goddess.  Not  only  their  temples 
but  their  houses  are  full  of  these  idols,  some  of  which  are 
extremely  hideous.  They  offer  them  a  portion  of  their 
food,  fan  them  in  warm  weather,  cover  them  from  cold, 
and  put  them  to  bed  every  night.  The  Bramins  tell  many 
legends  of  their  assuming  various  shapes  and  colours,  and 
working  miracles  ;  all  of  which  are  readily  believed. 

There  is  universal  belief  in  Evil  Spirits,  of  various  ranks 
and  degrees  of  power,  from  gigantic  demons,  who  attack 
the  orbs  of  light,  down  to  the  malicious  little  Pucks,  who 
delight  in  small  mischief  They  suppose  these  enter  the 
minds  of  men,  producing  bad  thoughts  and  criminal  ac- 
tions, and  also  take  possession  of  the  body,  producing  in- 
sanity, fits,  and  all  manner  of  diseases.  They  can  be  cast 
out  only  by  some  form  of  holy  words  pronounced  by  the 
priest,  with  ceremonies  prescribed  for  such  occasions. 
Vol.  I.— 11  F 


122  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

While  Sir  James  Forbes  was  presiding  judge  in  a  Hindoo 
district,  a  petition  was  sent  to  him  stating  tliat  a  certain 
woman  had  been  for  a  long  time  possessed  by  two  Evil 
Spirits;  and  that  the  petitioner's  daughter,  having  beeu 
with  this  woman,  and  witnessed  certain  conjuring  tricks, 
and  heard  the  devils  talk,  came  home  and  fell  down  on 
the  bed  without  sense  or  motion,  and  continued  so  for 
hours.  She  continued  to  have  these  fits  for  two  months; 
at  the  end  of  which  time,  she  told  her  parents  that  one 
of  the  devils  had  come  out  of  the  woman  and  entered  into 
lier,  tormenting  her  all  the  time  to  offer  it  food  and  sacri- 
fices. Dr.  Buchanan  mentions  a  man  in  Mysore  supposed 
to  be  possessed  by  one  of  these  demons,  which  caused  him 
to  fall  down  in  fits.  The  whole  village  was  in  an  uproar, 
and  could  only  be  appeased  by  the  presence  of  a  Bramin, 
who  recited  prayers,  and  strewed  consecrated  ashes  over 
the  individual.  Amulets  and  charms,  duly  prepared  by 
religious  ceremonies,  are  worn  as  a  protection  against  Evil 
Spirits,  likewise  against  witchcraft.  They  have  many  ma- 
gicians, most  of  whom  are  women.  It  is  said  they  can  be- 
witch people  by  keeping  their  eyes  steadfastly  fixed  on 
them  ;  that  they  can  travel  through  the  air  invisibly  ;  can 
bring  intelligence  from  remote  places  with  incredible  swift- 
ness; can  read  secret  thoughts;  and  if  tlirown  into  the 
river  with  a  stone  tied  to  them,  they  will  not  sink. 

Sir  James  Forbes  mentions  several  individuals  who  were 
in  possession  of  a  singular  power,  seemingly  supernatural ; 
particularly  a  Bramin,  who  could  see  what  was  occurring 
in  distant  places,  and  read  the  thoughts  of  people  who 
came  into  his  presence.  He  confesses  himself  much  puz- 
zled by  prophecies  and  revelations  of  this  kind,  which 
most  undoubtedly  occurred  during  his  residence  in  India. 

Some  degree  of  chemical  knowledge  has  existed  among 
the  liramins  for  many  ages.  They  are  acquainted  with 
tlio  antidotes  to  niiiny  poisons,  and  have  a  cluiinical  prepa- 
ration, called  Tantra,  with  which  they  rub  the  skin  to  en- 
able it  to  resist  tlie  action  of  fire.  When  people  are  sns- 
pected  of  crime,  Bramiiis  arc  often  called  in  to  detei'mine 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  123 

the  question  by  ordeal.  Sometimes  the  accused  individual 
is  ordered  to  swallow  poison  ;  sometimes  he  walks  on  red- 
hot  fron ;  sometimes  a  coin  is  put  in  a  vessel  of  boiling 
oil,  into  which  he  plunges  his  arm  and  brings  out  the  coin. 
The  arm  is  previously  washed  by  Bramins,  who  supplicate 
the  appropriate  deities,  and  afterward  pronounce  a  bene- 
diction. If  these  dangerous  experiments  prove  harmless, 
it  is  considered  a  sufl&cient  proof  of  innocence. 

Now,  as  in  ancient  times,  they  are  firm  believers  in 
astrology,  and  watch  the  motions  of  birds  and  bees  for 
omens.  When  a  child  is  born,  they  consult  the  aspect 
of  the  stars  to  ascertain  what  were  the  signs  of  his 
destiny.  When  a  ship  is  about  to  sail,  or  a  bargain 
to  be  concluded,  they  go  to  a  Bramin  or  a  soothsayer, 
to  decide  whether  a  day  is  lucky  or  unlucky.  Some  days 
are  proper  for  going  to  the  north,  others  for  going  to  the 
south.  Some  are  supposed  to  be  so  entirely  under  evil  in- 
fluence, that  they  abstain  from  all  manner  of  business. 
They  have  lucky  hours,  and  even  minutes,  which  they 
carefully  appropriate  to  the  transaction  of  very  important 
afiiiirs.  The  Bramins  annually  prepare  an  astrological  al- 
manac, defining  what  days  are  lucky  or  unlucky,  for  the 
various  actions  of  life.  But  even  if  all  other  signs  are 
propitious,  a  clap  of  thunder  will  usually  make  them  re- 
linquisli  any  undertaking. 

At  the  commencement  of  an  eclipse,  people  rush  to  the 
rivers  to  bathe,  and  throw  water  toward  the  sun,  with 
many  invocations.  Prayers  on  such  occasions  are  worth 
a  hundred  times  as  much  as  at  any  other  time;  for 
they  believe  that  a  powerful  demon  seizes  on  the  sun  and 
puts  him  in  great  anguish,  from  which  he  may  be  relieved 
by  the  praj'ers  and  donations  of  human  beings  purified  by 
ablutions. 

When  they  travel,  they  often  carry  with  them  the  image 
of  a  serpent  wreathed  round  a  pole  six  or  seven  feet  high  ; 
and  every  morning  the  whole  company  pay  adoration 
to  it. 

The  death  of  a  cow  or  calf  is  thouo-ht  to  be  a  sure  indi- 


124  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

cation  that  the  deities  are  offended.  On  such  i)ccasioris 
there  is  great  lamentation  in  a  family.  The  o\yner  of  the 
animal  often  leaves  home  for  two  or  three  years,  to  perform 
long  pilgrimages  of  expiation.  The  water  of  a  cow  is  used 
in  various  ceremonies  of  religious  purification ;  for  similar 
purposes,  they  likewise  make  a  preparation  from  the  dung 
of  a  perfectly  black  cow.  When  it  has  lain  in  the  shade 
till  it  has  become  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  Bramins  carry  it 
to  some  of  the  sacred  places,  burn  it  on  a  pile  of  chaff,  and 
gather  the  ashes  into  vessels.  They  then  sift  it  three  times, 
recite  prayers  over  it,  sprinkle  it  with  clean  water,  and 
make  it  into  small  lumps,  which  they  dry,  and  perfume 
with  the  essence  of  flowers.  They  dissolve  them  in  water, 
and,  turning  toward  the  sun,  sprinkle  it  on  their  foreheads 
and  breasts,  with  appropriate  prayers.  They  use  it  to 
avert  misfortunes,  and  peculiarly  to  keep  off  the  Spiiits  of 
Death,  who  are  sent  for  human  souls.  Bramins  and  saints 
keep  a  large  supply  of  this  article  for  devotees.  They 
have  great  horror  of  touching  the  dead,  or  any  thiuL'  that 
has  been  in  contact  with  a  corpse.  If  a  man  even  hears 
that  a  relative  has  died  in  a  distant  country,  he  is  deemed 
unclean,  and  must  purify  himself  by  religious  ceremonies. 
If  a  whole  year  has  passed  since  the  death,  merely  touch- 
ing water  is  considered  sufficient  purification. 

Water  is  supposed  to  cleanse  the  soul,  and  guard  from 
evil.  When  a  child  is  born,  priests  sprinkle  it,  and  sprinkle 
the  dwelling,  and  all  the  inmates  of  the  house  bathe.  Tliey 
do  this  from  an  idea  that  it  keeps  off  Evil  Spirits.  People 
perform  ablutions  before  they  eat;  and  priests  purify  them- 
selves with  water,  accompanied  with  prayers,  on  innumer- 
able occasions.  When  a  man  is  dying,  Bramins  hasten  to 
plunge  him  into  a  river,  believing  that  the  departing  soul 
may  be  thus  freed  from  impurities  before  it  quits  the  body. 
Some  rivers  arc  deemed  more  peculiarly  holy  and  effica- 
cious than  others ;  such  as  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  and  the 
Crishna.  The  water  of  the  Ganges  is  used  on  all  the  most 
solemn  occasions.  Imagers  of  the  deities  are  washoil  with 
it;  and  Bramins  are  sprinkled  with  it,  when  inducted  into 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  125 

the  priestly  office.  Happy  above  other  men  is  he  who  is 
drowned  in  that  sacred  stream.  Once  in  twelve  years,  the 
waters  of  Lake  Cumbhacum  are  supposed  to  be  gifted  with 
power  to  cleanse  from  all  sin.  As  this  period  approaches, 
Brarains  send  messengers  in  every  direction  to  announce 
when  the  great  day  of  ablution  will  take  place.  The  shores 
are  crowded  with  a  vast  multitude  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  from  flir  and  near.  They  plunge  at  a  signal  from 
the  officiating  Bramin,  and  in  the  universal  rush,  many  a 
one  is  suffiacated,  or  has  his  limbs  broken.  Water  from 
Ganges  is  kept  in  the  temples,  and  when  people  are  dying 
they  often  send  from  a  great  distance  to  obtain  some  of  it. 
Before  devotees  put  their  feet  into  a  river,  they  wash  their 
Lands,  and  utter  a  prayer. 

In  some  processes  of  purification,  the  Bramin  rubs  mud 
on  the  man,  and  then  plunges  him  three  times,  throwing  in 
a  handful  of  rice  each  time  as  an  offering.  During  this 
process,  he  says:  "O  Supreme  Lord,  this  man  is  impui'e, 
like  the  mud  of  this  stream ;  but  as  water  cleanses  him 
from  this  dirt,  do  thou  free  him  from  his  sin." 

Fire  is  deemed  a  still  higher  degree  of  purification  than 
water.  Thus  whole  families  were  supposed  to  be  redeemed 
from  sin  by  the  self-immolation  of  a  widow  on  the  funeral 
pile.  Saints  who  destroyed  themselves  by  fire  were 
believed  to  ascend  to  the  higher  degrees  of  Parndise,  and 
enjoy  an  immensely  long  period  of  heavenly  bliss.  In 
honour  of  some  of  their  deities,  they  walk  over  burning 
coals,  to  the  sound  of  musical  instruments,  faster  or  slower, 
according  to  their  degree  of  zeal.  Some  carry  their  children 
in  their  arras,  that  they  also  may  receive  a  share  of  the 
benefit.  If  sins  which  require  fire  are  not  purified  in  this 
^^•orld,  it  is  supposed  they  must  pass  through  a  fiery  jjrocess 
in  the  next. 

Blood,  being  the  seat  of  life,  was  always  considered  a 
very  efficacious  atonement  for  sin.  The  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  be  propitiated  according  to  the  number  and 
value  of  the  victims.  When  great  national  benefits  were 
to  be  obtained,  or  evils  averted,  they  sometimes  sacrificed 
Vol.  I.— 11* 


126  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

a  thousand  horses  at  once.  It  was  an  ancient  custom  for 
Bramins  to  lay  the  sins  of  the  nation  on  the  head  of  a 
horse.  It  was  done  with  solemn  imprecations  and  religious 
ceremonies,  and  then  the  animal  was  turned  loose  to  carry 
off  the  sins  of  the  people.  Bulls  were  rarely  sacrificed,  on 
account  of  their  veneration  for  those  creatures.  Men,  being 
higher  than  animals  in  the  scale  of  existence,  their  blood 
"was  deemed  more  excellent  as  an  expiation ;  and  by  being 
sacrificed  it  was  supposed  that  they  secured  Paradise  for 
themselves  also.  One  of  their  most  solemn  sacrifices  con- 
sisted of  a  man,  a  bull,  and  a  horse.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  in  ancient  times  a  young  man  and  woman,  richly 
decorated,  were  thrown  into  the  Ganges,  as  an  offering  to 
the  god  of  the  river.  In  later  times,  they  substituted 
images,  instead  of  living  beings.  Human  sacrifices  were 
abolished  at  an  early  period,  and  animal  sacrifices  are 
totally  disapproved  by  numerous  sects.  Men,  horses,  and 
bulls  were  formerly  ofifered  to  the  grim  goddess  Cali ;  but 
now  her  altars  flow  with  the  blood  of  kids  only.  To  re- 
concile this  custom  with  their  tenderness  for  animals,  a 
belief  is  inculcated  that  the  human  soul  imprisoned  in  the 
brute  is  thus  purified  from  all  its  sins,  and,  freed  from 
degrading  transmigrations,  rises  to  the  Paradise  of  Indra, 
and  becomes  a  musician  in  his  band. 

Hindoos  have  many  religious  festivals,  most  of  them 
observed  either  at  the  new  moon  or  the  full  moon.  They 
have  six  successive  festivals,  in  commemoration  of  the  six 
periods  in  which  Brahma  completed  the  work  of  Creation. 
On  the  twenty-fifth  of  December,  people  decorate  their 
houses  with  garlands  and  gilt  paper,  and  universally  make 
presents  to  friends  and  relatives.  This  custom  is  said  to 
be  of  very  great  antiquity.  In  November,  they  have  a 
festival,  during  which  they  light  up  vast  fires  by  day,  and 
illuminate  all  their  houses  at  night.  At  the  full  moon  in 
October,  they  commemorate  the  circular  dance  of  Crishna 
with  the  Gopias,  which  some  learned  men  suppose  to  have  an 
astronomical  significance.  Daring  the  great  festival  called 
Kamayana,  the  streets  arc  filled  with  gorgeous  processions, 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  127 

accompanied  by  dancers  and  musicians,  playing  on  horns, 
gongs,  cymbals,  and  drums.  Dramatic  representations 
illustrate  the  wonderful  adventures  of  Kama;  an  incarna- 
tion of  Vishnu,  at  different  periods  of  his  life,  prince,  con- 
queror, and  holy  hermit.  Three  children  are  dressed  with 
high  tinsel  crowns,  and  painted  with  verinillion,  to  imitate 
the  statues  of  Rama,  his  wife  Sita,  and  his  brother  Lakshman,.. 
Hanuman,  Rama's  great  general,  is  represented  by  a  man 
armed  with  a  club,  with  a  mask  like  an  ape,  and  an  ape's 
tail  tied  to  his  back.  In  ancient  times,  it  is  said,  these 
three  children  were  poisoned  at  the  end  of  the  feast,  that 
their  souls  might  be  absorbed  in  the  deities  they  repre- 
sented ;  but  this  was  afterward  prohibited. 

The  ignorance  and  credulity  of  the  people  have  been  at 
all  periods  j)ractised  upon  by  artful  or  self-deluded  men. 
About  the  end  of  the  year  1829,  appeared  an  extraordinary 
child  named  Narayun  Powar.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant, 
and  born  in  a  village  belonging  to  the  Rajah  of  Sattara. 
When  only  eight  years  old,  he  was  famous  for  his  extra- 
ordinary power  over  snakes.  lie  enticed  them  from  among 
rocks,  stones,  and  ditches,  played  with  them,  and  ran  about 
naked  with  them  twisted  all  round  his  neck  and  arms. 
Whether  he  fondled  or  chastised  them,  they  took  it  all  in 
good  part.  They  came  when  he  called,  and  went  away  at 
his  bidding;  but  he  was  seldom  easy  without  some  of  his 
favourite  animals  around  him.  Why  they  had  this  pre- 
dilection for  each  others'  company,  and  how  he  obtained 
such  singular  power  over  them,  each  one  must  explain 
according  to  his  own  theory ;  but  it  is  a  fact  that  several 
similar  instances  of  serpent-taming  have  occurred  in  the 
East.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  anchorites,  one  of  the 
signs  of  having  become  perfectly  holy,  completely  identified 
with  God  himself,  was  the  power  of  handling  serpents 
without  harm.  Whether  the  parents  of  Narayun  and  the 
Brarains  in  his  neighbourhood  really  believed  his  power  was 
derived  from  such  a  source,  or  whether  they  saw  fit  so  to 
represent  it  from  motives  of  self-interest,  is  known  to  them- 
selves.   There  was  an  old  prediction  by  the  poet  Toolseedas 


128  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tliat  an  extraordinary  person  would  arise  and  redeem 
Hindostan  from  foreign  dominion.  He  was  not  to  be  a 
mere  man,  but  an  incarnation  of  Indrajit,  a  hermit  of  such 
exalted  holiness  that  he  had  the  sublime  reward  of  dying 
by  the  hand  of  Rama  himself.  Brarnins  sought  to  prove 
that  the  period  predicted  was  precisely  that  of  Narayun's 
birth.  Mysterious  words  were  said  to  have  dropped  from 
the  child  at  various  times,  giving  hints  of  his  divine  nature, 
and  the  purposes  for  which  he  had  come  to  earth.  He 
certainly  did  not  seem  to  be  much  absorbed  in  heavenly 
things ;  for  like  other  boys  he  was  full  of  play  and  mischief, 
and  particularly  fond  of  gambling  with  small  shells  called 
cowries.  However,  they  called  him  "  Narayun  the  Holy," 
and  finally  "  the  living  God  Narayun."  In  his  name  they 
established  a  place  of  sacred  bathing,  where  the  sinful  and 
the  sickly  were  invited  to  come  and  wash  away  diseases 
and  crimes.  Rumours  spread  through  the  country  that 
many  cripples  had  been  cured,  and  many  blind  received 
their  sight.  Bramins  composed  hymns  in  his  praise,  and 
four  were  appointed  to  keep  record  of  all  his  words  and 
actions.  His  disciples  taught  that  men  ought  no  longer  to 
worship  images  of  wood  and  stone,  but  place  all  their  faith 
in  this  living  divinity,  come  to  deliver  them  from  all  foreign 
yokes,  as  Rama  had  rid  the  world  of  giants.  In  a  few 
months,  ten  thousand  pilgrims,  many  of  them  of  wealth 
and  rank,  came  to  lay  their  offerings  at  the  feet  of  Narayun  ; 
and  many  who  could  not  come,  forwarded  vows  and  offer- 
ings. On  every  one  who  bathed  in  the  waters,  or  bowed 
to  the  divinity,  a  tax  was  levied.  His  parents  and  the 
administering  Bramins  grew  rich  rapidly.  A  little  girl, 
said  to  be  an  incarnated  goddess,was  chosen  for  liis  bride ; 
and  it  was  rumoured  that  on  a  certain  day  he  would  cause 
a  magnificently  caparisoned  horse  to  rise  out  of  the  cartli, 
on  which  he  would  ride  forth  to  meet  her.  The  enthusiasm 
Bpread  wonderfully,  and  infected  all  classes  more  or  less. 
It  is  even  said  that  a  European  resident  iu  India,  a  dis- 
tinguished scliolar,  and  a  lirm  believer  in  Chi'istianity, 
being  asked  his  opinion,  answered  :  "  The  facts  1  have  heard 


IIINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  129 

quite  stagger  me.  The  whole  Hindoo  population  are 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the  divinity  of  this  child,  and  are 
going  mad  after  him.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  extra- 
ordinary means  God  may  adopt  for  the  spiritual  recovery 
of  the  Hindoos.  Ordinary  means  and  missions  seem  to 
have  failed  with  them." 

The  llajah  of  Sattara  manifested  great  uneasiness  at  the 
pretensions  of  Narayun,  The  wife  of  one  of  his  ministers, 
who  for  several  years  had  been  subject  to  singular  trances, 
had  prophesied  that  he  was  destined  to  restore  the  old 
Hindoo  empire  ;  and  the  rival  claims  of  the  peasant  boy 
excited  his  jealousy.  But  while  the  enthusiasm  was  at  its 
height,  the  child  died.  He  was  one  day  exhibiting  as 
usual  his  perfect  control  over  snakes,  which  were  brought 
to  him  in  great  numbers  by  strangers,  when  a  Pariah  pro- 
duced a  very  large  one,  declared  to  have  been  brought  all 
the  way  from  Benares.  Narayun  seized  hold  of  it  boldly, 
but  for  the  first  time  he  found  a  serpent  he  could  not 
manage.  It  became  irritable  and  bit  him  mortally.  His 
death  was  attributed  to  magic,  and  it  was  confidently 
predicted  that  he  would  rise  on  the  third  day.  AViien  this 
hope  failed,  they  said  it  would  certainly  occur  on  the  eighth 
day.  A  crowd  of  pilgrims  waited  to  witness  his  resurrec- 
tion, and  finally  dispersed  disappointed  and  sorrowing. 
Kumours  were  afloat  that  he  had  actually  ap})eared  in 
different  places.  Some  tried  to  propagate  the  belief  tliat 
his  soul  had  lodged  in  the  body  of  a  Bramin,  who  would 
eventually  fulfil  all  that  had  been  promised  of  him.  But 
iinally  it  all  passed  away,  and  his  worshippers  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  was  merely  an  incarnated  demon,  who 
came  on  earth  for  a  while  to  amuse  himself  with  mortals. 

The  Christian  missionaries  of  various  sects,  who  have 
been  in  India  for  many  years,  have  made  little  perceptible 
progress  in  changing  the  faith  of  the  people  ;  but  many 
causes  are  at  work  to  fulfil  the  prophecy  connected  with 
the  fall  of  Siva's  Staff"  at  Benares.  Hindostan  being  the 
seat  of  very  lucrative  commerce,  a  vai'iety  of  foreign  na- 
tions have  contended  for  possession   of  it.     Mahometans 


130  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

from  Tartary  began  their  conquests  as  early  as  A.  D.  976 ; 
and  after  a  long  succession  of  bloody  wars,  during  which 
they  destroyed  a  vast  number  of  temples,  and  carried  off' 
immense  treasures,  they  firmly  established  their  religion  in 
large  districts  of  the  country.  Many  adopted  the  faith 
and  costume  of  their  conquerors,  and  others  were  finally 
allowed  freedom  to  worship  in  their  own  way.  One  of  the 
principal  mosques  was  formerly  a  Hindoo  temple.  They 
killed  a  cow  in  it  to  prevent  any  of  the  natives  from  en- 
tering; it. 

On  the  Malabar  coast  are  more  than  two  hundred  thou- 
sand Nestorian  Christians,  whom  the  Hindoos  call  Naza- 
renes.  They  have  had  a  regular  establishment  of  bishops 
and  clergy  there  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  In  the 
fifth  century,  Jews,  fleeing  from  the  oppression  of  Chris- 
tian countries,  were  allowed  by  a  compassionate  Brarnin  to 
settle  in  Hindostan,  They  are  now  numerous  in  some 
portions  of  the  country.  Fire- Worshippers,  escaping  from 
the  Mahometan  conquerors  of  Persia,  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, begged  for  a  shelter,  and  had  their  claim  allowed,  on 
condition  that  they  would  eat  no  beef,  and  never  kill  ox 
or  cow.  They  have  scrupulously  kept  this  promise,  and 
large  numbers  of  them  reside  in  India,  under  the  name  of 
Parsees.  The  Portuguese,  who  have  long  had  possessions 
thei'e,  established  the  Inquisition  at  Goa,  and  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries have  been  scattered  through  the  country.  France 
and  Denmark  have  settlements  there.  Great  Britain  has 
conquered  several  kingdoms,  and  her  laws  govern  millions 
of  the  people.  She  has  had  Episcopal  bishops  resident 
there  for  many  years,  and  numerous  missions  from  dissent- 
ing sects. 

Consequently,  the  landscape  of  India  is  dotted  all  over 
with  Hindoo  pagodas,  Mahometan  mosques.  Jewish  syna- 
gogues, Catholic  cathedrals,  and  Protestant  churches.  The 
Hindoos,  though  remarkable  for  tenacious  attachment  to 
their  own  forms  of  faith,  are  very  ready  to  admit  that  all 
modes  of  worship  arc  acceptable  to  God,  if  performed  with 
sincerity  of  heart.     It  is  a  common  maxim  with  them  that 


HINDOSTAK,    OK   INDIA.  131 

"  Heaven  is  a  palace  with  many  doors,  and  each  one  may 
enter  in  his  own  way."  The  Bi'arains,  who  compiled  the 
Code  of  Gentoo  Laws,  say  in  the  preface,  that  "  the 
Supreme  Being  is  sometimes  employed  with  tlie  attendant 
of  the  mosque,  in  counting  the  sacred  beads,  and  sometimes 
in  the  temple  at  the  adoration  of  idols.  He  is  the  friend 
of  the  Hindoo,  the  intimate  of  the  Mahometan,  the  compa- 
nion of  the  Christian,  and  the  confidant  of  the  Jew."  Sir 
William  Jones  says:  "It  is  their  firm  opinion  that  the 
Deity  has  a})peared  innumerable  times,  and  by  innumer- 
able avatars,  not  only  in  many  parts  of  this  world,  but  of 
all  worlds,  for  the  salvation  of  his  creatures  ;  and  that  both 
Christians  and  Hindoos  adore  the  same  God  under  different 
forms."  Actuated  by  this  kindly  feeling,  their  women  and 
children  often  gather  fruit  and  flowers  for  the  mosque  and 
the  cathedral,  as  well  as  for  their  own  sacred  groves. 

When  men  of  difierent  creeds  are  brought  into  frequent 
contact,  they  cannot  avoid  mutually  giving  and  receiving. 
Their  prejudices  gradually  soften  and  finally  melt  away. 
The  interfusing  of  religious  ideas  from  various  sources  is 
conspicuous  in  the  teaching  of  many  modern  Hindoos. 
One  of  these,  named  Swaniee  Narain,  attracted  consider- 
able attention  about  1820.  He  went  through  various  dis- 
tricts teaching  and  exhorting  the  people  ;  and  many  vil- 
lages of  bad  character  became  virtuous  and  orderly  under 
his  influence.  He  inculcated  temperance  and  purity,  and 
forbade  his  disciples  to  look  upon  a  woman.  He  taught 
the  existence  of  one  invisible  God,  who  made  and  sustains 
all  things,  and  whose  especial  dwelling  is  in  the  hearts  of 
those  that  diligently  seek  him.  But  he  likewise  taught 
that  there  is  a  Spirit,  who  was  with  God  from  all  eternity, 
who  cometh  from  God,  who  likewise  is  God,  and  who  hath 
made  known  to  man  the  will  of  God.  This  Spirit  he  said 
<;ame  down  to  earth  in  ancient  times  in  the  form  of  Crishna, 
whom  wicked  men  put  to  death  by  magic.  He  was  the 
same  as  the  Sun,  and  was  to  be  worshipped  as  God's 
image  or  rei)resentative.  Since  his  death  there  had  been 
many  pretended  revelations  and  false  divinities  set  up. 


132  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Bishop  Heber,  in  conversation  with  him,  remarked  that 
he  had  spol^en  truly  when  he  said  there  was  but  one  God, 
He  tried  to  convince  him  that  one  incarnation  of  that  God 
was  sufficient  for  mankind,  and  existed  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  the  Word  of  God,  proceeding 
from  him,  and  one  with  him  from  all  eternity.  But 
Swamee  Narain  insisted  there  had  been  many  incarnations, 
suited  to  the  wants  of  different  nations  ;  one  for  Christians, 
another  for  Mahometans,  others  for  Hindoos.  He  said  he 
regretted  the  prevailing  worship  of  images  ;  but  symbols 
were  necessary  for  the  ign(^rant,  and  he  feared  to  offend 
their  prejudices  by  preaching  against  them. 

The  Hindoos  are  extremely  averse  to  any  change  from 
ancient  customs  and  opinions.  The  description  given  of 
them  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  more  than  two 
thousand  years  ago,  would  nearly  describe  them  now. 
But  notwithstanding  this  strong  conservative  tendency, 
innovations  of  various  kinds  have  been  gradually  intro- 
duced; especially  in  Bengal,  which  is  more  subject  to  a 
mixture  with  foreigners  in  the  relations  of  government 
and  commerce.  When  Hindoos  were  invited  to  dine  with 
European  magistrates  or  merchants,  they  ate  at  a  table  by 
themselves,  and  had  their  food  cooked  by  one  of  their  own 
nation,  according  to  the  rules  of  their  religion.  This 
scruple  still  remains  with  a  majority  of  the  people  ;  but 
here  and  there  liberal  individuals  have  set  it  aside,  saying: 
"  We  think  the  Christians  are  as  pure  as  we  are,  and  cer- 
tainly some  of  them  are  wiser."  The  higher  castes,  who 
formerly  abstained  from  animal  food,  now  eat  fish,  mutton, 
and  kid's  flesh  ;  and  the  lower  orders  eat  almost  every- 
tliing  except  beef.  The  spirit  of  caste  still  exerts  a  tremen- 
dously strong  influence,  but  its  barriers  are  thrown  down 
in  numerous  instances.  In  the  extensive  districts  under 
British  control,  Bramins  are  executed  for  capital  crimes, 
the  same  as  other  men.  Some  of  the  wealthiest  families 
are  of  Soodra  origin,  and  the  descendants  of  Bramins  may 
sometimes  be  found  among  cooks,  or  serving  as  soldiers  in 
the  army.     Though   intermixture  with   foreigners  is  for- 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  133 

bidden  as  a  great  sin,  large  classes  of  half  European 
parentage  have  sprung  u]\  and  are  early  accustomed  to  a 
foreign  languat^e  and  a  foreign  faith.  The  lower  orders 
manifest  an  increasing  neglect  of  the  rules  of  caste,  and 
are  generally  desirous  to  send  their  children  to  schools 
established  by  the  English.  It  is  predicted  that  English 
Avill  become  the  prevailing  language.  The  upper  classes 
now  generally  speak  it  with  fluency,  and  take  great  interest 
in  its  literature.  It  was  formerly  considered  very  wrong 
to  give  foreigners  access  to  their  Sacred  Books  ;  but  there 
is  now  an  established  profession  of  Hindoo  teachers  in 
Bengal  to  instruct  Europeans  in  Sanscrit,  that  they  may 
examine  the  Vedas,  the  Shastras,  and  the  Pouranas.  At- 
tendants on  the  temples  begin  to  complain  that  the  offer- 
ings are  of  little  worth,  compared  with  former  times 
One  of  them  lately  told  a  missionary  that  he  was  unable 
to  procure  means  to  repair  the  roof,  in  consequence  of 
which  water  was  dripping  on  the  image  of  the  god  during 
all  the  rainy  season.  He  reported  this  to  the  people,  but 
they  seemed  quite  indifferent  about  it.  He  thought  they 
were  all  becoming  unbelievers. 

Bramins  strive  to  reconcile  themselves  to  this  state  of 
things,  on  the  ground  that  they  are  living  in  the  Cali  Yug, 
when  religion  is  reduced  to  naught  by  decrees  of  Deity, 
and  therefore  it  is  useless  to  try  to  screen  their  Sacred 
Books  from  the  profanation  of  foreign  hands.  Atrocious 
murders  have  often  been  confessed  and  extenuated  in  their 
courts,  on  the  plea  that  it  is  the  Cali  Yug,  when  crimes 
must  abound. 

No  priesthood  in  the  annals  of  the  world  have  retained 
BO  much  power,  for  such  a  long  series  of  centuries,  as  the 
Bramins.  That  as  a  class  they  have  abused  this  power,  is 
the  inevitable  result  of  possessing  it;  but  there  are  among 
them  intelligent,  learned,  and  exemplary  men,  whose 
characters  would  do  honour  to  any  nation.  Bishop  Heber 
says :  "  In  one  of  the  temples  I  saw  a  Bramhi  who  passed 
the  whole  day  on  a  little  pulpit,  about  as  high  and  large 
as  a  dressing-table.  At  night,  he  sleeps  on  the  pavement 
Vol.  I.— 12 


184  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

beside  it.  His  constant  occupation  is  reading  or  lecturing 
on  the  Vedas,  which  he  does  to  as  many  as  will  hear  him, 
fj'ora  eight  in  the  morning  till  four  in  the  evening,  lie 
asks  for  nothing;  but  a  small  copper  basin  stands  near  the 
pulpit,  and  he  subsists  entirely  on  the  alms  which  the 
charitable  are  disposed  to  drop  into  it.  He  is  a  small,  pale 
man,  of  an  interesting  countenance,  said  to  be  eloquent  and 
extremely  learned  in  the  Sanscrit."  Some  of  the  Bramins 
of  Malabar  wrote  to  the  Danish  missionaries:  "  God  alone 
rules  all  the  world,  and  all  that  is  therein.  It  is  he  who 
rules  the  eight  hundred  and  forty  thousand  kinds  of  living 
creatures ;  but  because  of  his  various  appearances,  he  has 
different  names.  Hence  we  say  Brahma  creates,  Vishnu 
rules,  Siva  destroys ;  all  which  different  expressions  denote 
but  One  Supreme  Being.  And  when  we  attribute  the  pro- 
tection of  towns  and  villages  to  tutelar  gods,  our  meaning 
is  that  the  Great  God  does  mediately  protect  towns  and 
countries  by  his  vicegerents  and  governors.  For  there  is 
not  the  least  motion  in  the  world  without  the  will  of  the 
First  Cause.  Indeed  there  are  many  gods,  but  they  cannot 
so  much  as  move  a  straw  out  of  its  place,  without  the 
assistance  of  the  First  Cause;  therefore,  he  is  justly  called 
the  Lord  of  the  World ;  for  it  is  his  power  that  rules  all 
things,  and  he  is  infinite  and  incomprehensible."  This 
statement  doubtless  represents  the  general  views  of  en- 
lightened classes  of  Hindoos  at  the  present  time  ;  but  they 
cannot  yet  believe  that  ideas  which  elevate  priests  and 
princes  would  also  elevate  the  people.  They  argue  that 
to  present  the  doctrine  of  a  purely  spiritual  Deity  to  men 
absorbed  in  tlie  cares  of  animal  existence,  would  inevitably 
make  them  attieists.  Strongly  attached  to  their  ancient 
religion,  from  force  of  education,  Bramins  maintain  that  it 
is  entirely  misunderstood  by  Europeans,  whose  modes  of 
thought  prevent  them  from  having  any  conception  of  the 
spiritual  significance  of  their  allegorical  writings  and  sacred 
ceremonies.  Intelligent  worshippers  of  every  age  and 
nation  might  urge  the  same  plea  with  perfect  justice ;  for 
every  symbol,  even  the  rudest,  was  originally  made  sacred 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  135 

as  the  embodiment  of  some  idea,  and  the  spiritual-minded 
long  continue  to  reverence  the  adulterated  form  for  what 
it  originally  signified. 

A  transition  state,  when  society  is  preparing  to  cast  its 
old  skin,  is  unpleasant  and  difficult  for  timid  and  reveren- 
tial temperaments.  Sacred  laws  appropriate  to  one  age,  do 
not  supply  the  wants  of  another  age.  They  become  in- 
convenient or  impossible  of  application  when  progressive 
centuries  have  introduced  manifold  changes.  Theologians 
of  India  have  expended  great  learning  and  patience  to 
make  some  old  maxims  of  their  Sacred  Books  harmonize 
with  the  new  wants  of  society,  graduall}^,  though  slowly, 
changing.  In  the  process,  several  of  those  maxims  have 
been  formally  abrogated  by  legal  enactment ;  others  have 
fallen  into  disuse,  with  the  remark  that  "  they  were  doubt- 
less intended  for  a  more  perfect  state  of  the  world." 

Some  of  the  Bramins  manifest  great  earnestness  and 
candour  in  examining  other  modes  of  faith.  Among  these 
none  have  been  so  remarkable  as  Rammohun  Roy,  a 
wealthy  Bramin,  born  in  Bengal,  in  1780.  He  was  well 
acquainted  with  Sanscrit,  Hebrew,  Persian,  Arabic,  Greek, 
Latm,  and  English.  While  quite  young,  he  published  a 
book,  "Against  the  Idolatry  of  All  Religions."  In  this  he 
gave  great  offence  to  Hindoos  and  Mahometans,  by  the 
freedom  with  which  he  animadverted  upon  what  he  con- 
sidered the  defects  in  both  their  religious  systems.  His 
gentle  nature  was  pained  but  not  discouraged  by  the  enmity 
he  excited.  In  1816  he  translated  the  more  spiritual  por- 
tions of  the  Vedas  from  Sanscrit  into  Hindostanee  and 
Bengalee,  two  of  the  most  widely  spread  languages  of 
Hindostan,  and  circulated  them  wherever  he  could,  free  of 
cost.  In  the  Preface  he  says :  "  I  have  never  ceased  to 
contemplate  with  the  strongest  feelings  of  regret  the 
obstinate  adherence  of  my  countrymen  to  their  fatal  s3'Stem 
of  idolatry  ;  violating  every  humane  and  social  feeling,  for 
the  sake  of  propitiating  their  supposed  deities,  especially 
by  dreadful  acts  of  self-destruction,  and  the  immolation  of 
nearest  relatives,  under  the  delusion  of  conforming:  to  sacred 


136  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

religious  rites.  In  these  practices  I  view  with  sorrow  the 
moral  debasement  of  a  race  capable  of  belter  things,  whose 
susceptibility,  patience,  and  mildness  of  character,  render 
them  worthy  of  a  happier  destiny.  Under  these  impres- 
sions, I  am  impelled  to  lay  before  them  genuine  translations 
of  portions  of  their  own  Scriptures,  which  inculcate  not 
only  the  enlightened  worship  of  One  God,  but  the  purest 
principles  of  morality.  It  seems  to  me  that  I  cannot  better 
employ  my  time  than  in  an  endeavour  to  illustrate  and 
maintain  truth,  and  render  service  to  my  fellow-creatures; 
confiding  in  the  mercy  of  that  Being  to  whom  the  motives 
of  our  actions  and  the  secrets  of  our  hearts  are  well  known." 

This  attempt  to  restore  the  primitive  simplicity  of  the 
Hindoo  religion  made  Eammohun  Roy  as  unpopular  as  if 
he  had  sought  to  introduce  an  entirely  new  system.  But 
still  following  the  great  impulses  of  his  liberal  soul,'wishing 
to  see  all  mankind  acknowledge  themselves  children  of 
One  Father,  he  translated  an  abridgment  of  the  Vedanta 
into  English  ;  in  order,  as  he  says  in  the  Preface,  to  prove 
to  his  European  friends  "that  the  superstitious  practices 
which  deform  the  Hindoo  religion  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  pure  spirit  of  its  dictates."  He  saj^s:  "By  taking  the 
path  which  conscience  and  sincerity  direct,  I,  born  a  Bramin, 
have  exposed  myself  to  the  complaints  and  reproaches  even 
of  some  of  my  relations,  whose  prejudices  are  strong,  and 
whose  temporal  advantages  depend  upon  the  present  system 
of  idolatry.  But  these,  however  accumulated,  I  can  tran- 
quilly bear;  trusting  that  a  day  will  arrive  when  my 
humble  endeavours  will  be  viewed  Avith  justice,  perhaps 
acknowledged  with  gratitude." 

lie  studied  the  Christian  Scriptures  with  profound  atten- 
tion, and  held  their  maxims  in  great  veneration.  But  the 
mischiefs  he  had  seen  result  from  a  plurality  of  gods,  led 
him  to  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  he  saw 
would  inevitably  degenerate  into  a  new  form  of  Polytheism, 
if  received  into  minds  trained  like  the  Hindoos.  But  ho 
believed  that  Christ  was  pre-existent,  and  of  a  nature 
superior  to  angels,  which  is  extremely  analogous  to  ideas 


HINDOSTAN,    OR   INDIA.  137 

entertained  hy  various  Hindoo  sects  concerning  their  own 
saints.  He  translated  into  Sanscrit  and  Bengalee  the 
parables  and  moral  teachings  of  Christ,  entitled  "  The 
Precepts  of  Jesus,  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness.''  He 
omitted  the  miracles  and  doctrinal  })ortions  of  the  Gospels. 
In  the  Introdaction  he  says:  "Belief  in  a  Supreme  Super- 
intending Power,  the  author  and  preserver  of  this  har- 
monious system,  prevails  generally  ;  being  derived  either 
from  tradition  and  instruction,  or  from  an  attentive  survey 
of  the  wonderful  skill  and  contrivance  displayed  in  the 
works  of  nature.  A  due  estimation  of  that  law  which 
teaches  man  to  do  unto  others  as  he  would  be  done  by,  is 
also  partially  taught  in  every  system  of  religion  with 
which  I  am  acquainted  ;  but  it  is  principally  inculcated  by 
Christianity.  This  essential  characteristic  of  the  Christian 
religion  I  was  for  a  long  time  unable  to  distinguish  as 
such,  amid  the  various  doctrines  I  found  insisted  on  in  the 
writings  and  convei'sationof  Christians.  I  feel  persuaded 
that  the  moral  precepts  of  the  New  Testament,  separated 
from  other  matters  contained  in  that  book,  will  be  more 
likely  to  improve  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men  of  different 
persuasions  and  degrees  of  understanding.  The  historical, 
and  some  other  portions,  are  liable  to  the  doubts  and  dis- 
putes of  free-thinkers  and  anti-Christians;  especially  the 
miraculous  relations,  which  are  much  less  wonderful  than 
the  fabricated  tales  handed  down  to  the  natives  of  Asia, 
and  consequently  apt  at  best  to  carry  little  weight  with 
them.  The  Hindoos  have  records  of  wonderful  miracles 
performed  by  their  saints  and  incarnated  gods,  in  the 
presence  of  cotemporary  friends  and  enemies,  the  w^ise  and 
the  ignorant,  the  select  and  the  multitude.  The  orthodox 
sects  can  even  support  them  with  authorities  from  their 
inveterate  enemies,  the  Jains,  who  acknowledge  entirely 
the  truth  of  these  miracles,  and  only  differ  in  maintaining 
that  the  power  to  perform  them  was  derived  from  Evil 
Spirits,  while  the  orthodox  believe  it  was  given  by  the 
Supreme  Deity.  But  moral  doctrines,  tending  evidently 
to  the  peace  and  harmony  of  mankind  at  large,  are  beyond 
Vol.  1.-12* 


188  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

the  reach  of  metapl}3-sical  perversion,  and  intelligible  alike 
to  learned  and  unlearned.  This  simple  code  of  religion 
and  morality  is  so  well  fitted  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  the 
human  race,  in  the  discharge  of  their  various  duties  to  God 
and  society ;  it  is  so  admirably  calculated  to  elevate  their 
minds  to  high  and  liberal  ideas  of  One  God,  who  has 
equally  subjected  all  living  creatures  to  disappointment, 
pain,  and  death,  without  distinction  of  caste,  rank,  or 
wealth,  and  equally  admitted  all  as  partakers  of  the  boun- 
tiful mercies  he  has  lavished  over  nature,  that  I  cannot 
but  hope  the  best  effects  from  its  promulgation  in  the 
present  form." 

Doubtless  seed  scattered  from  such  friendly  motives  will 
produce  good  fruit  in  the  great  harvest-field  of  the  future. 
But  during  the  life-time  of  Rammohun  Roy  his  suppres- 
sion of  the  miracles,  and  the  reasons  assigned  for  it,  in- 
volved him  in  protracted  controversies  with  Christian 
missionaries,  and  occasioned,  as  he  says,  "  much  coolness 
toward  him  in  the  demeanour  of  some  whose  friendship  he 
held  very  dear."  At  the  same  time,  his  high  estunate  of 
the  Christian  religion  rendei'cd  him  an  object  of  persecu- 
tion to  his  own  countrj^men.  They  instituted  legal  pro- 
ceedings to  deprive  him  of  caste;  but  he  was  enabled  to 
defeat  them  by  his  profound  knowledge  of  Hindoo  law. 

In  1833  he  was  induced  to  visit  England;  and  on  that 
distant  shore  his  great  soul  depai-ted  from  its  earthly  habi- 
tation. When  he  found  himself  dangerously  ill,  he  deemed 
it  prudent  to  guard  against  further  attacks  on  his  property 
and  the  caste  of  his  children.  He  therefore  called  his 
Hindoo  servant  and  charged  him  to  observe  well  all  his 
words  and  actions,  that  on  his  return  to  India  he  might 
testify  he  had  never  changed  his  religion  or  forfeited  his 
caste.  For  the  same  reasons,  he  expressed  a  wish  not  to 
be  buried  in  a  Christian  cemetery.  His  remains  were  ac- 
cordingly placed  in  a  grove  belonging  to  the  house  where 
he  died. 

The  followers  of  the  Rraminical  religion  arc  comj^JUteJ 
at  over  one  hund'-ed  and  fifty  niilli(Mis. 


EGYPT.  139 


EGYPT. 

"The  fiiculty  of  reverence  is  inherent  in  all  men,  and  its  naiural  exei  • 
else  is  always  to  be  sympathized  with,  irrcspe'Jiive  of  its  objects.  I  did 
not  wait  till  I  went  to  Egy[)t,  to  become  aware  that  every  permanent 
reverential  observance  has  some  great  idea  at  tiie  bottom  of  it;  and  tliat 
it  is  our  business  not  to  deride,  or  be  shocked  at  the  method  of  inavifesta- 
tiou,  but  to  endeavour  to  apprehend  the  idea  concerned." — H.  Maktixeau. 

IIlSTOEY  and  poetry  have  preserved  traditions  of  an 
extraordinary  race  of  men,  called  Ethiopians.  The  name 
is  from  Greek  words  signifying  burnt  faces  ;  and  the  an- 
cients appear  to  have  applied  it  to  people  browned  by  the 
sun,  whether  their  complexions  were  black,  or  merely 
dark.  According  to  a  map  made  to  represent  the  ideas 
of  Ilerodotus  concerning  the  world,  as  expressed  in  his 
History,  about  four  hundred  years  before  our  era,  there 
were  two  nations  of  Ethiopians ;  one  in  Asia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Indus,  another  in  the  northern  portion  of  Africa. 
There  is  evidence  that  these  people  were  powerful  and 
illustrious,  as  far  back  as  the  Trojan  war,  about  one  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  eighty-four  years  before  our  era. 
Memnon  then  reigned  over  them,  and  it  is  recorded  that 
he  assisted  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  against  the  invasion  of 
the  Greeks.  Homer  calls  them  "the  blameless  men  ;"  and 
relates  that  Jupiter,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  left 
Olympus  and  w^ent  to  spend  twelve  days  in  that  pious  and 
hospitable  region,  Egyptian  annals  are  full  of  allusions 
to  them.  Persia,  and  other  old  Asiatic  nations,  mingle 
Ethiopian  legends  with  songs  composed  in  honour  of  their 
own  heroes.  Herodotus  says  they  worshipped  the  gods 
with  extremest  veneration.  The  ancient  historian,  Diodo- 
rus  Siculus,  declares  that  they  were  the  religious  parents 


1-JO  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  the  Egyptians,  the  inventors  of  pompg,  sacrifices,  and 
solemn  assemblies.  The  Hebrew  poets  gejierally  mention 
Ethiopia  in  connection  with  Egypt.  Isaiah  speaks  of  "  the 
labour  of  Egypt,  and  the  merchandise  of  Ethiopia."  Jere- 
miah describes  "the  mighty  men,  Ethiopians  and  Libyans, 
that  handle  the  shield,"  as  coming  forth  with  the  Egyp- 
tians to  battle.  Ezekiel  says:  "Great  pain  shall  be  in. 
Ethiopia,  when  the  slain  shall  fall  in  Egypt."  It  is  re- 
corded that  Meroe  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Ethiopia 
in  Africa.  Current  tradition  declared  that  Thoth,  whom 
Greeks  called  Hermes,  founded  this  state,  more  than  five 
thousand  two  hundred  years  ago  ;  and  the  date  is  said  to 
be  authenticated  by  a  very  old  astronomical  observation. 
Traditions  handed  down  by  the  Egyptian  priesthood  agreed 
that  in  Meroe  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  most  ancient 
states  of  Egypt.  Thebes,  the  first  civilized  state  of  Egypt, 
is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony  from  thence. 
The  obscurity  which  rests  on  this  part  of  history  has  been 
somewhat  enlightened  within  the  last  century,  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  site  of  ancient  Meroe,  in  the  country  now 
called  Sennaar,  and  comprised  within  African  Ethiopia  on 
the  map  marked  according  to  Herodotus.  Many  small 
pyramids  were  found  there,  which,  from  their  number,  are 
supposed  to  indicate  a  burial-place.  They  are  constructed 
like  the  Hindoo  pyramids,  fronting  the  east,  and  the  four 
sides  facing  the  four  cardinal  points.  They  have  external 
marks  of  greater  age  than  the  huge  pyramids  at  Memphis. 
Herodotus  says:  "The  only  gods  worshipped  in  Meroe 
are  Amnion  and  Osiris.  They  have  also  an  oracle  of  Am- 
nion, and  undertake  their  expeditions  when  and  how  the 
god  commands."  The  temple  where  these  oracles  were 
delivered  is  recorded  to  have  been  in  the  desert,  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  city.  Modern  travellers  have  discovered 
the  ruins  of  a  temple  in  the  desert,  near  the  collection  of 
small  pyramids,  liams'  horns  are  sculptured  in  many 
places  on  the  stones;  and  the  I'am  is  well  known  to  have 
Ix'cn  an  emblem  sacred  to  Ammon,  and  the  distinguishing 
ni;irk  iA'  liis  temples.     In  the  inmost  sanctuary  of  these 


EGYPT.  141 

temples  was  a  Sacred  Sliip,  enclosed  in  a,  shrine,  and 
screened  by  a  veil.  When  the  oracle  was  to  be  consulted, 
a  procession  of  priests  carried  about  this  Ship,  in  its  porta- 
ble sanctuary,  placed  on  poles,  which  thej  rested  on  their 
shoulders.  From  certain  movements  of  the  ship,  durino- 
their  religious  ceremonies,  omens  were  gathered,  according 
to  which  the  High  Priest  delivered  the  oracle. 

The  government  of  Meroe  was  in  the  hands  of  a  caste 
of  priests,  Vvdio,  guided  by  the  oracle,  selected  one  of  their 
own  order  for  king.  When  this  choice  was  announced  to 
the  people,  they  fell  down  and  adored  him,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  their  god  Ammon,  who  had  appointed  him  to 
rule  over  them.  He  was  obliged  to  live  and  govern 
according  to  laws  prescribed  by  the  priests.  When  the 
oracle  intlicated  that  a  change  of  rulers  was  necessary,  the 
High  Priest  sent  a  messenger  that  the  god  commanded 
him  to  die,  and  that  mortals  must  not  seek  to  evade  divine 
decrees. 

AVhence  did  this  powerful  priesthood  come?  Many 
learned  men  maintain  that  they  came  from  that  part  of 
Ethiopia  said  to  be  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus ;  that  is, 
from  Indus-stan,  which  we  call  Hindostan.  The  points  of 
resemblance  between  the  opinions  and  customs  of  India 
and  Egypt  are  too  numerous  and  too  obvious  to  be  over- 
looked by  any  one  who  even  glances  at  the  subject.  Some 
scholars,  with  less  probability  on  their  side,  maintain  that 
Egypt  is  the  oldest,  and  that  Hindostan  was  settled  by 
colonies  from  thence.  One  thing  is  certain  and  undisputed, 
namely,  that  a  very  ancient  and  very  intimate  relation 
existed  between  the  two  countries.  Meroe,  by  its  location, 
was  the  centre  of  a  great  caravan  trade  known  to  have 
been  carried  on  in  very  early  ages,  between  India  and 
Egypt  and  Arabia.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  the 
Pouranas  of  Hindostan  contain  records  of  two  remarkable 
emigrations  from  that  country  to  Egypt,  at  a  ver^^  remote 
period.  The  first  were  the  "Yadavas,  or  sacred  race," 
who  fled  from  the  oppressions  of  Cansa,  the  same  tyrant 
who  caused  so  many  children  to  be  slaughtered  when  he 


142  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

was  seeking  the  life  of  Crishna.  The  date  they  assign  to 
this  event  agrees  very  well  with  the  date  which  tradition 
ascribes  to  the  first  settlement  at  Meroe ;  and  the  Yadavas 
are  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  Crishna.  The  other  emi- 
gration recorded  in  the  Pouranas  is  that  of  powerful  tribes, 
called  Pali,  or  Shepherds,  who  governed  from  Indus  to 
Ganges,  and  enlarged  their  empire  by  conquests  in  Misra- 
stahn  [their  word  for  the  Land  of  Egypt],  where  one  of 
their  princes  became  so  wealthy  that  "  he  raised  three 
mountains,  one  of  gold,  one  of  silver,  and  one  of  gems." 
This  is  snpposed  by  some  to  describe  the  three  great 
Pyramids,  at  Memphis,  one  of  which  was  originally 
overlaid  with  white  marble,  another  with  yellow 
marble,  and  the  third  with  spotted  marble,  of  fine  grain, 
susceptible  of  exquisite  polish.  Many  scholars  consider 
the  Pali  identical  with  the  powerful  tribes  of  Asiatic 
Etliiopians,  described  by  Herodotus,  and  supposed  to  dwell 
on  the  banks  of  the  Indus.  Others  conjecture  they  were 
Assyrians,  or  Phoenicians.  Manetho,  who  was  High  Priest 
at  Heliopolis  in  Egypt,  about  three  hundred  and  four  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  wrote  a  history  of  Egypt  from  the 
earliest  times,  in  the  Greek  language.  He  professed  to 
have  taken  it  from  inscriptions  engraved  by  Thotli,  or 
Hermes,  on  stone  pillars,  in  the  sacred  characters.  These 
he  declares  were  afterward  written  in  books,  and  laid  up 
in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  temples,  to  which  he,  of  course, 
had  access.  A  few  fragments  of  Manetho's  History  have 
been  handed  down  to  us.  In  these  it  is  stated  that  Egypt 
was  overrun  "by  a  race  of  Shepherds  from  the  East,"  in 
the  reign  of  their  king  Timoeus;  which  some  computations 
])lace  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty  years  ago,  and 
others  much  earlier.  He  informs  us  that  some  said  these 
invaders  were  Arabians. 

Among  the  ])roofs  (jf  a  very  intimate  connection,  in  some 
way,  between  India  and  ]^^gy|)t,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned. In  both  countries  there  was  a  powerful  hereditar_y 
priesthood,  who  had  exclusive  possession  of  the  tSacred 
Books,  and  ul"  all  the  learning  extant  in  their  time;  con* 


-cYi'..  148 

8equ(>ntly,  lliev  were  tlio  only  judges,  pliysicians,  and 
ustroiioiiieiw.  jlu  dulu  uoiuilmcs,  lue  leligiun  Oi  lug  [Jiic&ia 
was  carefully  kept  secret  from  the  people;  and  the  conse- 
quence was  that  the  most  grotesque  and  monstrous  forms 
a})peared  on  the  surface  of  society,  while  high  spiritual 
allegories  and  profound  metaphysical  inquiries  were  con- 
cealed behind  the  veil.  Both  countries  were  originally 
governed  by  priests,  and  afterward  kings  were  chosen  from 
the  warrior  caste,  but  were  regulated  and  controlled  by  the 
priests.  In  both  countries  society  was  divided  into  castes, 
of  which  the  sacerdotal  was  the  highest.  In  both,  the 
priests  married,  but  there  was  no  female  priesthood.  Both 
had  a  language  for  sacred  purposes,  which  was  different 
from  the  vernacular  tongue.  Both  believed  that  bathing 
in  holy  rivers,  or  being  drowned  in  them,  would  confer 
peculiar  sanctity.  Both  believed  there  was  an  immense 
reservoir  of  waters  above  the  firmament,  whence  those 
rivers  flowed.  Both  believed  in  a  fifth  element  above  our 
atmosphere,  called  ether,  which  the  gods  breathed,  as 
mortals  breathe  air.  In  both  places,  priests  taught  to  the 
higher  castes  that  all  souls  emanated  from  One  Universal 
Soul,  in  successive  gradations.  Both  taught  that  there 
were  ascending  spheres  of  existence  above  this  earth.  Both 
taught  the  transmigration  of  human  souls  into  animals. 
The  same  animals  were  considered  sacred  in  both  places. 
There  was  similarity  in  their  religious  festivals  and  pro- 
cessions, especially  in  the  custom  of  carrying  their  sacred 
images  from  one  temple  to  another,  in  great  four-wheeled 
cars.  The  architecture  of  ancient  Egypt  bore  a  striking 
resemblance  to  that  of  India.  Both  suggested  the  idea  of 
grottoes  or  caverns,  and  were  characterized  by  the  same 
style  of  ornaments.  The  pyramid  was  a  form  prescribed 
for  sacred  buildings  in  both  countries,  therefore  a  truncated 
pyramid  generally  formed  the  main  entrance  to  the  temples. 
There  was  always  a  sanctuary  into  which  none  but  the 
priests  entered,  and  the  outer  courts  were  for  the  people. 
Both  decorated  their  temples  with  flags  on  festival  occasions 
Both  made  similar  offerings  to  the  ffods.     The  trial   of 


144  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

departed  souls  by  the  Judge  of  tlie  Dead  is  sculptured  on 
Hindoo  and  Egyptian  walls,  and  they  are  so  similar  that 
one  might  be  mistaken  for  the  other.  Their  astronomical 
systems  were  alike.  They  represented  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  by  tlie  same  emblems,  consecrated  a  day  to  each  of 
the  seven  planets  successively,  and  made  the  same  calcula- 
tions concerning  alternate  destructions  and  reproductions 
of  this  world.  It  is  said  by  the  learned,  that  the  Egyptian 
language  bears  very  few  and  slight  analogies  to  the  Sanscrit ; 
and  no  traces  of  the  hieroglyphic  writing  have  yet  been 
discovered  in  India.  But  Bruce,  the  traveller,  says  that  the 
language  spoken  at  Masuah,  not  far  from  Meroe,  is  substan- 
tially Sanscrit.  Many  places  mentioned  by  Mango  Park,  in 
liis  Second  Journey  to  Africa,  have  Sanscrit  names,  which 
are  actually  current  in  India  at  the  present  day.  The  Nile 
was  formerly  designated  by  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying 
dark  blue ;  and  the  same  name  was  anciently  given  to  the 
river  Indus.  Alexander  the  Great  thought  he  had  dis- 
covered the  source  of  the  Nile  in  India.  He  was  probably 
inisled  by  the  coincidence  of  names,  and  the  crocodiles  and 
lotus-blossoms,  which  abounded  in  both  rivers.  Blumen- 
bach,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  had  in  his  possession  the 
skull  of  an  Egyptian  mummy,  and  of  a  Hindoo;  and  he 
said  they  bore  a  more  striking  resemblance  to  each  other 
than  any  other  two  skulls  in  his  collection.  Paintings  on 
the  walls  convey  the  same  idea  of  similarity  in  their  persons. 
In  both  places,  the  higher  castes  are  represented  with  a 
lighter  and  brighter  colour  than  the  lower,  who  are  more 
darkened  by  exposure  to  sun  and  wind.  Denon  says  the 
))ictures  of  couches,  chairs,  and  other  articles  in  ancient 
Egyptian  tombs,  obviously  indicate  that  they  were  made 
of  a  species  of  wood  brought  from  India. 

If  tlie  Egyptians  still  existed  as  a  nation,  and  had  pre- 
served their  old  customs  and  Sacred  BooLs,  as  the  Hindoos 
have  done,  it  woidd  doubtless  be  easy  to  find  many  more 
resemblances.  But  Egypt  has  passed  away  from  the  face 
of  tIk!  earth,  and  only  l)y  persevering  industry  has  learning 
been  able  to  trace  a  lew  of  her  footsteps.     What  we  know 


EGYPT.  .  145 

of  her  history  and  opinions  is  mainly  derived  from  the 
testimony  of  wise  and  illustrious  men,  who  were  drawn 
thither  by  her  renown  for  knowledge  in  arts,  sciences,  and 
religious  mysteries.  Abraham  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
nearly  four  thousand  years  ago.  That  Egypt  was  already 
famous  in  his  time  is  testified  by  Josephus,  historian  of  the 
Jews,  who  informs  us  that  Abraham  went  down  thither, 
to  become  an  auditor  of  the  priests,  and  compare  their 
religious  ideas  with  his  own. 

Herodotus,  the  oldest  Greek  historian,  visited  Egj'pt 
about  four  hundred  and  forty-eight  years  before  Christ,  to 
collect  materials  from  the  priests,  who  were  celebi^ated  for 
having  carefully  preserved  the  records  of  past  ages.  His 
history  has  come  down  safely  to  the  present  time. 

In  less  than  a  hundred  years  after,  Plato,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Gi-eek  philosophers,  was  drawn  to  Egypt  by 
the  renown  of  priestly  schools  at  Heliopolis,  and  resided 
there  several  years.  Many  of  his  writings  are  preserved, 
and  they  contain  frequent  allusions  to  the  Egyptians. 

Strabo,  author  of  a  Greek  geographical  work,  describing 
the  manners  and  customs  of  different  nations,  went  to 
Egypt  about  fifty  years  after  the  Christian  era.  Heliopolis, 
eclipsed  by  the  new  city  of  Alexandria,  was  then  going  to 
decay,  and  the  priests  were  no  longer  among  the  most 
learned  of  their  age ;  but  they  talked  of  departed  glory, 
and  pointed  out  to  him  their  once  famous  schools,  and 
the  house  where  Plato  had  resided.  This  book  is  also 
extant. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  priests  claimed  immense  antiquity 
for  their  country.  They  told  Herodotus  that  Egypt  was 
originally  governed  by  gods;  of  whom  there  first  reigned 
a  series  of  eight,  then  a  series  of  twelve,  then  a  series  of 
twelve  more;  that  these  rulers  had  uniformly  one  Superior 
among  them;  and  the  last  of  them  were  Osiris  and  his  son 
Horus.  By  this  government  of  gods  it  is  naturally  su])- 
posed  they  meant  successive  orders  of  j^riests,  each  with  a 
Sovereign  Pontiff,  bearing  the  name  of  the  deity  to  whose 
service  he  was  devoted,  and  by  whose  oracular  directions 
Vol.  I.— 13  a 


146  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

lie  professed  to  govern.  Thus  if  a  priest  of  Ammon  was 
chosen  ruler,  they  called  it  being  governed  by  Ammon ; 
if  a  priest  of  Osiris  was  elected,  they  called  it  the  govern- 
ment of  Osiris.  From  the  reign  of  Osiris  to  their  king 
Amasis,  they  reckoned  fifteen  thousand  years;  and  Amasis 
reigned  five  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years  before  Christ. 
Herodotus  says:  "On  this  subject,  the  Egyptians  have  no 
doubts;  for  they  profess  to  have  always  computed  the 
years,  and  to  have  kept  written  accounts  of  them  with  the 
minutest  accuracy."  It  was  customary  for  every  high 
priest  of  Ammon  during  his  life-time  to  deposit  in  the 
great  temple  at  Thebes  a  statue  of  himself.  They  pointed 
out  to  Herodotus  three  hundred  and  forty  one  of  these 
colossal  wooden  images,  assuring  him  that  no  one  of  them 
was  the  statue  of  a  god,  but  all  were  mortal  men,  and  priests, 
in  a  direct  line  of  succession  from  father  to  son  ;  all  of  them 
after  the  reign  of  the  gods.  Allowing  three  generations 
of  men  to  be  equal  to  one  hundred  years,  he  computed 
that  this  succession  required  an  interval  of  eleven  thousand 
three  hundred  and  forty  years. 

We  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  the  Greeks  the  ancients, 
but  they  considered  themselves  a  nation  of  yesterday  com- 
pared with  the  Egyptians.  Plato  visited  Egypt  about 
three  hundred  years  later  than  Solon,  the  lawgiver  of 
Athens;  and  he  informs  us  that  when  Solon  inquired  of 
the  priests  concerning  ancient  affairs,  he  perceived  that, 
compared  with  them,  neither  he  nor  any  other  of  the 
Greeks  had  any  knowU^dge  of  very  remote  antiquity. 
AVhen  he  began  to  discourse  concerning  what  seemed  to 
him  the  most  ancient  events,  such  as  the  Deluge  of 
Deucalion,  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  priests  exclaimed: 
"Solon,  Solon,  you  Greeks  are  always  children.  All  your 
souls  arc  juvenile;  neither  containing  any  ancient  opinion 
derived  from  remoter  tradition,  nor  any  discipline  hoary 
from  its  cxisteiiee  in  remote  periods  of  time.  You  mention 
one  deluge  only,  whereas  many  have  happened." 

Thcsc!  statciiiciits  of  Kgyi>tian  priests  are  rejected  aa 
fabulous ;  but  the  great  antiquity  of  their  counti'y  is  proved 


EGYPT.  147 

beyond  dispute  hj  sculptures  and  liieroglypliic  wrilinji,  cut 
into  the  solid  rock  of  ancient  temples,  tombs,  and  palaces. 
The  dry  climate  and  sandy  soil  were  favourable  to  their 
preservation.     There  was  no  frost  to  heave  them,  no  rainy 
season  to  corrode  the  durable  material.    For  centuries  after 
this  wonderful    people  had    passed   away,  their  gigantic 
memorials  stood  in  the  solitude  of  waste  places,  seldom 
seen  by  the  eye  of  man.     The  marvellous  accounts  of 
travellers  at  last  attracted  general  attention  toward  them, 
and  within  the  last  half  century,  France  and  England  havo 
devoted  much  money  and  learning  to  the  careful  investiga- 
tion of  these  stupendous  monuments.    The  task  was  attended 
with  difficulties  apparently  insurmountable;  for  the  secret 
of  hieroglyphic  writing  had  been  lost  for  ages,  and  no  man 
could  reveal  it.     But  when  the  French  army  were  digging 
the  foundations  of  a  fort,  at  Eosetta,  in  Egypt,  they  found 
a  large  block  of  stone  containing  an  inscription  in  three 
different  characters ;    one  in   Greek,  one  in  the  common 
Egyptian  writing,  and  one  in  the  sacred  characters  used 
only  by  the  priests.    Underneath  them  all,  it  was  recorded 
that  the  same  inscription  had  been  ordered  to  be  engraved 
in    three   forms.     The    Greek    language    was   familiar   to 
scholars,  and  a  clue  to  the  other  unknown  characters  was 
thus  obtained.     But  the  stone  was  much  mutilated,  and 
though  several  names  remained  in  the  Greek  portion,  un- 
fortunately only  that  of  Ptolemy  remained  in  hieroglyphics. 
The  base  of  an  obelisk,  with  an  inscription  in  Greek  and 
in  hieroglyphics,  was  afterward  discovered  at  Philoe.    The 
names  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  in   hieroglyphics  were 
well    preserved,  and   the  letters  common   to   both    were 
written  in  the  same  manner;    they  were   therefore   con- 
cluded to  be  signs  of  sound,  which  we  call  letters.     This 
feeble  ray  of  light  was  applied  by  learned  men  of  different 
nations,  with  inconceivable  perseverance  and  ingenuit3\ 
One  after  another  added  something  to  the  stock  of  knowl- 
edge, until  at  last  an  available  system  was  formed.     The 
Coptic  language  is  a  relic  of  the  old  vernacular  tongue  of 
Egypt,  and  various  writings  were  preserved  in   it.     M. 


148  PilOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Champollion,  an  acute  Frenchman,  had  studied  it  almost 
from  boyhood,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  bring  another  ray 
of  light  to  the  investigation  of  hieroglyphics.  lie  dis- 
covered that  the  alphabet  consisted  of  images  of  external 
objects,  and  represented  the  first  letter  of  that  object's  name 
in  the  common  Egyptian  language ;  as  if  in  English  we 
should  make  a  dog  for  D,  a  cat  for  C,  and  a  serpent  for  S. 
Many  and  great  difficulties  remained.  One  of  the  most 
troublesome  was  the  custom  of  omitting  vowels  in  hiero- 
glyphics, and  writing  only  the  consonants.  AVithout 
attempting  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  numerous 
obstacles,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  by  great  learning, 
labour,  and  patience,  several  inscriptions  on  the  ancient 
monuments  have  been  satisfactorily  deciphered. 

On  a  stone  tablet  discovered  at  Karnak  are  engraved 
the  names  of  a  successive  series  of  sixty-one  kings.  We 
suppose  that  Moses  lived  about  three  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  forty-nine  years  ago;  and  the  latest  of  these 
kings  was  prior  to  the  date  we  assign  to  Moses. 

Several  ancient  authors  agree  in  testifying  that  Menei, 
commonly  called  Menes,  was  the  first  king;  and  their 
statement  has  been  confirmed  by  engravings  on  monu- 
ments, and  writings  on  papyrus.  Menei  is  an  abbreviation 
of  Amun-ei,  signifying  "he  who  walks  with  Amun  ;"  by 
which  his  cotemporaries  understood  "  he  who  walks  with 
God."  According  to  Manetho's  list  of  kings,  he  reigned 
seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixteen  years  ago. 
The  statements  of  that  old  historian  concerning  many  of 
the  later  kings,  though  long  doubted,  have  of  late  years 
been  remarkably  corroborated  by  the  monuments ;  but  his 
testimony  with  regard  to  Menes  is  rejected.  Josephus  says 
tiiis  ancient  king  lived  more  than  one  thousand  three  hun- 
dred years  before  Solomon,  who  was  born  one  thousand 
thirty-three  years  before  Christ.  Some  modern  scholars 
carry  the  date  of  Menes  as  far  back  as  two  thousand  eight 
liundred  and  ninety  years  before  our  era;  others  bring  it 
as  near  to  it  as  two  thousand  two  hundred  years.  The 
learned  on  this  subject  su])pose  two  thousand  seven  huQ' 


EGYPT.  149 

dred  and  fifty  years  before  Christ  to  be  a  near  approxima- 
tion to  the  truth. 

The  Italian  Marquis  Spineto,  who  carefully  investigated 
this  subject,  says:  "The  first  period  of  Egyptian  history 
begins  with  the  establishment  of  their  government,  and 
comprehends  the  time  from  Misraim  to  Menes,  during 
which  all  religious  and  political  authority  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood,  who  laid  the  first  foundation  of 
the  future  power  of  Eg3^pt,  founding  and  embellishing  the 
great  city  of  Thebes,  building  magnificent  temples,  and 
instituting  the  Mysteries  of  Isis." 

The  ancient  religion  of  Egypt,  like  that  of  Hindostan, 
was  founded  on  astronomy,  and  eminently  metaphysical 
in  its  character.  In  common  with  other  oriental  nations, 
they  supposed  the  origin  of  the  world  was  from  a  dark 
chaos.  Soul  existed  from  eternity,  and  by  its  action  upon 
Matter,  chaos  was  brought  into  form,  and  out  of  darkness 
beamed  forth  light.  The  fiery  particles  ascended  and 
formed  the  firmament  of  luminaries;  the  heavier  portions 
descended,  and  formed  earth  and  sea,  whence  animals  and 
plants  proceeded.  From  the  Eternal  Soul  were  evolved 
successive  emanations  of  Spiritual  Intelligences,  more  or 
less  elevated  in  character  and  office,  according  to  their 
nearness  or  remoteness  from  the  Central  Source. 

The  Source  of  Being  was  never  represented  by  any 
painting  or  sculpture.  Those  who  understood  the  religion 
of  Egypt,  considered  the  deities  mere  emblematical  repre- 
sentations' of  his  various  attributes.  The  first  emanation 
from  him  was  Amun,  whom  Greeks  called  Jupiter  Am- 
nion. He  was  supposed  to  dwell  in  a  radiant  upper 
sphere,  far  above  the  subordinate  deities.  He  is  described 
as  "The  Male  Origin  of  all  things;"  "The  Spirit  of  the 
Supreme,  moving  on  the  face  of  the  waters ;"  "  The  Spirit 
who  animates  and  perpetuates  the  world,  by  mixing  him- 
self with  all  its  parts;"  "He  who  brings  to  light  hidden 
things;"  "Lord  of  the  Three  Regions-''  "The  King  of 
Gods."  His  image  Avas  always  painted  dark  blue,  and 
represented  with  a  Ram's  head  and  horns ;  probably  with 
Vol.  1.— 13* 


150  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

6ome  reference  to  the  constellation,  wliich  bears  that  name; 
therefore  a  ram's  head  became  a  sacred  amulet,  worn  by 
the  devout  as  a  protection  against  evil..  As  Creative  Wis- 
dom, he  was  named  Amun-Cneph.  As  the  Intellectual, 
or  Spiritual  Sun,  he  was  called  Amun-Ea.  His  worship 
was  universal,  but  he  was  peculiarly  the  presiding  deity 
of  Thebes,  which  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Meroe. 

Tradition  declared  that  the  Ethiopians  were  his  first 
■worshippers ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  Homer's  legend  con- 
cerning Jupiter's  visit  to  "the  blameless  men,"  had  refer- 
ence to  an  annual  procession  of  the  priests  of  Jupiter 
Ammon  at  Thebes,  up  the  Nile  to  some  place  consecrated 
by  the  worship  their  ancestors  had  offered.  The  image 
of  the  god  was  probably  carried  on  a  great  car,  according 
to  Hindoo  custom. 

Phtha,  belonging  to  the  higher  class  of  gods,  was  called 
the  son  of  Amun  Gneph,  and  said  to  have  proceeded  from 
an  egg  formed  by  him.     To  Phtha  was  attributed  the 
invention  of  science,  by  which  the  laws  of  nature  were 
arranged.    He  was  considered  the  founder  of  the  dynasties 
of  Egypt:  therefore  kings  often  took  the  title  "Beloved 
of  Phtha."     In  the  royal  city  of  Memphis,   which  was 
consecrated  to  him,  he  had  a  magnificent  temple,  splen- 
didly adorned,  where  the  grand  ceremony  of  the  inaugu- 
ration of  Egyptian  kings  was  performed  with  great  pomp. 
Of  all  Egyptian  deities,  Osiris  is  the  name  most  familiar 
to  modern  ears.     He  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  mere 
representation  of  the  visible  sun;  but  increasing  knowl- 
edge on  the  subject  proves  that  he  embodied  a  more  com- 
prehensive  idea.     It   has   been   already  shown  how  the 
Hindoo  mind  deified  the  active  and  passive  powers  of 
f>:encration.     The  same  tendency  was  manifested  in  Egypt. 
Osiris  did  not  represent  this  power  in  any  one  department 
of  nature.     He  ap])oars  to   have  been,  like   Siva   in   his 
^'(•iiial  ca])acity,  The  Fructifying  Power  of  the  Universe, 
'i'iie  emblems  of  the  sun  were  sacred  to  him,  and  astro- 
nomical ceremonies  of  worship  typified  him  as  the  sun,  to 
whose  rays  the  earth  owes  her  fi-uitl'ulncss.     His  worship 


EGYPT.  151 

was  mingled  with  that  of  the  god  of  their  holy  river, 
named  Nilus;  and  the  sculptures  often  represent  him  as 
sprinkling  manure  on  the  earth,  because  to  his  pervad- 
ing warmth  the  river,  at  its  annual  overflow,  owes  its 
fertilizing  power.  Because  plants  cannot  germinate  with- 
out water,  vases  full  of  it  were  carried  at  the  head  of 
processions  in  honour  of  Osiris,  and  his  votaries  refrained 
from  destroying  or  polluting  any  spring.  This  reverence 
for  the  production  of  Life  introduced  into  his  worship  the 
sexual  emblem  so  common  in  llindostan.  A  colossal 
image  of  this  kind  was  presented  to  his  temple  in  Alex- 
andria, by  king  Ptolemy  Pliiladelphus.  Crowned  with 
gold,  and  surmounted  by  a  goWen  star,  it  was  cariied  in  a 
splendid  chariot  in  the  midst  of  religious  processions.  A 
Serpent,  the  emblem  of  Immortality,  always  accompanies 
the  image  of  Osiris.  The  Hawk  was  considered  a  bird  of 
the  Sun,  and  was  therefore  sacred  to  him  ;  and  his  body 
was  often  represented  with  the  head  of  a  hawk.  The 
emblem  which  signilicd  his  name  was  the  orb  of  the  sun 
on  the  head  of  a  hawk.  This  formed  the  winged  globe, 
so  conspicuous  in  Egyptian  architecture. 

Osii-is  was  called  "the  oldest  son  of  Time,  and  cousin 
of  the  Day."  Being  a  general  representative  of  the  Gen- 
erating Principle,  whether  existing  in  sunshine,  water,  or 
the  production  of  animal  life,  there  was  a  mingling  of 
ceremonies  and  emblems  in  his  worship,  which  has  greatly 
puzzled  those  wdio  seek  to  understand  the  mythology  of 
Egypt.  To  increase  the  difficulty,  he  is  often  represented 
as  a  beneficent  ruler  on  earth,  at  whose  birth  it  was  said 
a  loud  voice  proclaimed,  "  The  Lord  of  the  World  is  born  !" 
He  taught  men  how  to  prepare  corn  and  cultivate  grapes, 
and  went  forth  t(j  carry  arts  and  agriculture  to  other 
nations,  leaving  his  wife  Isis  to  govern  in  his  absence.  On 
his  return,  his  brother  Tj^pho,  by  a  successful  stratagem, 
shut  him  up  in  a  chest  and  threw  him  into  the  sea.  Isis 
wandered  about  in  mourning  garments,  seeking  for  the 
body,  which  she  at  last  found;  but  Typho  discovered  it, 
and  tore  it  into  fourteen  pieces.    Isis  gathered  the  fragments 


152  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ind  gave  tliem  burial.  Osiris,  having  thus  performed  his 
benevolent  mission  on  earth,  descended  into  Amenti,  the 
Kegion  of  the  Dead,  and  liaving  passed  through  its  stages, 
ascended  to  a  higher  hfe,  where  he  remained  to  dispense 
blessings  to  the  world,  in  answer  to  their  prayers  in  his 
name,  and  finally  to  overcome  the  Evil  Principle,  that  had 
destroyed  him.  Henceforth,  one  of  his  principal  offices 
was  to  judge  the  dead,  and  rule  over  that  heavenly  region 
where  souls  of  good  men  were  admitted  to  eternal  felicity. 
It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  this  account  is  an  alle- 
gory, containing  some  hidden  meaning,  or  whether  it 
indicates  a  belief  in  the  incarnation  of  Osiris. 

He  was  universally  worshipped,  but  peculiarly  at  Philoe, 
where  he  was  supposed  to  be  buried.  At  stated  seasons, 
the  priests  went  in  solemn  procession  and  crowned  his 
tomb  with  flowers.  So  sacred  was  the  island,  that  no  one 
was  permitted  to  approach  it  without  express  permission 
from  the  priests.  Here  were  celebrated  the  Great  Mys- 
teries of  Osiris,  carefully  guarded  from  all  eyes  and  ears, 
save  of  those  who  had  been  initiated  by  severe  probation. 
In  a  ruined  temple  at  Philce  is  a  chamber,  on  the  walls  of 
which  the  mysterious  life  of  Osiris  is  represented  in  a 
succession  of  sculptures.  Twenty-eight  Lotus  plants  indi- 
cate the  number  of  years  he  was  supposed  to  have  lived 
on  earth.  His  passage  from  this  life  is  shown  by  the  at- 
tendance of  deities  and  genii,  that  presided  over  funerals. 
lie  is  then  represented  with  a  crook  in  one  hand,  and  a 
flagellum,  or  Avhip,  in  the  other,  as  Judge  of  the  Dead  : 
the  office  which  he  held  ever  after  his  ascension  to  a  higher 
life.  Cliampollion  says  the  double  destiny  of  the  soul  was 
symbolized  by  the  march  of  the  sun  through  the  upper 
and  lower  hemisphere.  This  might  be  an  additional  reason 
why  O.siris,  as  Judge  of  Souls  and  Lord  of  the  Heavenly 
Region,  where  they  received  reward,  should  have  the  em- 
blems and  worship  of  the  sun.  On  the  walls  of  ruins  in 
various  places  occur  representations  of  the  dead  at  their 
Jast  ordeal.  Osiris,  seated  on  his  throne,  accompanied  by 
Isis,  receives  a  tablet  on  which  the  god  Thoth  has  recorded 


EGYPT.  153 

tlie  actions  of  the  deceased,  after  they  have  been  weighed 
ill  the  balance  of  Thinei,  goddess  of  Truth.  Horus,  al- 
ways represented  as  a  child,  is  sometimes  seated  on  a 
Lotus  before  the  throne,  sometimes  on  the  crook  of  Osiris. 
He  was  the  symbol  of  resuscitation,  or  new  birth ;  and  was 
placed  there  to  express  the  Egyptian  idea  that  nothing  is 
ever  annihilated ;  that  to  die  was  only  to  pass  into  a  new 
form.  As  Judge  of  the  Dead,  who  assigned  to  souls  new 
bodies,  celestial  or  terrestrial,  Osiris  was  the  dispenser  of 
Immortal  Life,  and  this  was  probably  the  reason  why  a 
Serpent  was  always  one  of  his  appendages. 

Though  he  belonged  to  the  third  series  of  gods,  he  was 
more  revered  than  even  the  eight  highest  deities.  Amun 
Ra  is  represented  in  the  scul})tures  as  making  offerings  to 
him.  It  was  deemed  irreverent  to  utter  his  name.  He- 
rodotus mentions  him  as  "one  whose  name  I  am  not  at 
liberty  to  disclose."  The  most  sacred  form  of  oath  was, 
"  I  swear  by  him  who  was  buried  at  Philce."  This  pecu- 
liar sacredness  appears  to  indicate  that  he  was  the  only 
god  in  their  mythology  represented  as  incarnated  in  a 
human  form,  and  dwelling  among  men.  Every  human 
soul  was  considered  as  an  emanation  from  the  Divine  Soul, 
and  eternally  a  portion  of  it.  But  that  was  quite  different 
from  the  idea  of  a  Deity  voluntarily  descending  from  blest 
abodes,  performing  a  benevolent  mission  among  men,  suf- 
fering death,  and  rising  again  to  the  higher  reoions,  thence 
to  dispense  blessings  on  his  faithful  worshippers.  This 
history  of  the  incarnation  was  one  of  the  most  important 
of  their  I'eligious  mj^steries;  and  so  carefully  was  it 
guarded  by  the  priests,  that  little  can  now  be  learned  of 
its  purport.  It  may  be  that  some  wise  and  beneficent 
ruler,  perhaps  a  Higii  Priest  of  Osiris,  was  believed  to  be 
the  Deity  himself  descended  on  earth  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind,  as  Hindoos  believed  concerning  their  princes 
Rama  and  Crishna.  Wilkinson,  in  his  valuable  work  on 
the  Ancient  Egyptians,  pronounces  the  whole  story  purely 
allegorical.  Herodotus  sa3'S  that  when  the  priests  of 
Amun    showed   him   the    three    hundred    and    forty-one 

J* 


154  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

statues,  they  assured  him  that  every  one  of  them  was  a 
man  and  the  son  of  a  man ;  and  "  they  asserted  that 
during  all  that  time  no  Deity  had  appeared  in  a  human 
form ;  but  they  did  not  say  the  same  of  the  time  anterior 
to  that  account,  or  that  of  the  kings  who  reigned  after- 
ward," 

The  worship  of  Osiris  must  have  been  of  extremely 
ancient  date ;  for  he  is  I'epresented  as  Judge  of  the  Dead, 
in  sculptures  cotemporary  with  the  building  of  the  Pyra* 
mids,  centuries  before  Abraham  was  born.  Among  the 
many  hieroglyphic  titles  which  accompany  his  figure  in 
those  sculptures,  and  in  many  other  places  on  the  walls 
of  temples  and  tombs,  are  "  Lord  of  Life,"  "  The  Eternal 
Euler,"  "Manifester  of  Good,"  "Eevealer  of  Truth," 
"  Full  of  Goodness  and  Truth." 

Ea,  the  son  of  Plitha,  represented  the  visible  Sun,  and 
presided  over  the  physical  universe.  Heliopolis,  which 
means  the  City  of  the  Sun,  was  consecrated  to  him.  His 
worship  was  performed  there  with  great  splendour,  and  his 
priests  were  renowned  for  learning. 

The  Moon  was  a  masculine  deity  in  Egypt,  as  in  Hin- 
dostan.  Thoth,  whom  Greeks  call  Hermes,  is  supposed  to 
have  represented  its  beneficent  qualities.  He  also  presided 
over  learning,  was  supposed  to  impart  all  mental  gifts,  and 
to  be  the  medium  of  communication  between  gods  and 
human  beings.  He  is  represented  as  the  secretary  of 
Osiris,  standing  before  him  with  a  pen  or  stylus,  in  his 
hand,  writing  on  a  tablet.  To  him  are  attributed  the 
invention  of  the  alphabet,  astronomy,  arithmetic,  music, 
dancing,  writing,  and  laws. 

Listead  of  one  deity  who  alternately  destroyed  and 
reproduced,  like  the  Hindoo  Siva,  Egyptians  represented 
the  Destroyer  as  twin  brother  with  Osiris,  and  named 
liim  Typho.  He  was  god  of  Darkness  and  Eclipse.  All 
bad  influences  were  attributed  to  him,  such  as  drought, 
disease,  deluge,  and  conflagration.  The  sea  was  considered 
under  his  dominion,  on  account  of  its  being  such  a  dan- 
gerous and  destructive  clement.     He  is  represented  in  the 


EGYPT.  155 

sculptures  as  a  fi'ii^litful  monster,  with  tlie  ravaging  hip- 
popotamus for  a  symbol. 

Among  the  goddesses,  the  highest  was  Neith,  who 
reigned  inseparably  with  Amun  in  the  upper  sphere.  She 
was  called  "  Mother  of  the  Gods  ;"  "  Mother  of  the  Sun." 
She  was  the  feminine  origin  of  all  things,  as  Amun  was 
the  male  origin.  She  presided  over  wisdom,  philosophy, 
militarj'  tactics,  and  the  moral  attributes  of  the  mind.  Her 
s\mibol  was  a  vulture,  by  which  the  Egyptians,  for  some 
unknown  reason,  represented  maternity.  She  held  the 
same  rank  at  Sais  that  Amun  did  at  Thebes.  Her  temples 
there  are  said  to  have  exceeded  in  colossal  grandeur  anj-- 
thing  ever  before  seen.  On  one  of  these  was  the  celebrated 
inscription  thus  deciphered  by  ChampoUion  :  "I  am  all 
that  has  been,  all  that  is,  and  all  that  will  be.  No  mortal 
has  ever  raised  the  veil  that  conceals  me.  My  offspring  is 
the  Sun." 

Isis,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Hindoo  Isa  or  Isi, 
was  universally  worshipped,  and  held  in  peculiar  reverence, 
though  she  belonged  to  the  inferior  series  of  deities.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Time,  twin  sister  and  wife  of  Osiris, 
with  whom  she  is  everywhere  inseparably  united.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  she  signified  the  Moon  ;  but  her  office, 
like  that  of  Osiris,  was  much  more  extensive  than  the 
benefits  of  any  one  luminary.  She  was  the  universal  Pas- 
sive Principle  of  Generation,  as  he  was  the  Active  Principle. 
She  was  the  recipient,  or  mould,  of  the  Life  he  imparted. 
To  her  was  ascribed  the/orm  of  all  good  in  the  universe, 
as  to  Osiris  was  ascribed  the  soul  of  all  good.  She  was 
Nature,  the  fruitful  mother  and  nurse,  containing  within 
herself  germs  of  the  reproduction  of  all  forms  of  life.  Hence 
her  symbol  was  the  egg.  Both  she  and  Osiris  are  frequently 
represented  holding  the  Egyptian  Cross,  Emblem  of  Life. 
This  universal  benefactress  is  said  to  have  had  ten  thousand 
titles  ;  the  most  common  was  the  Potent  Mother  Goddess. 
She  presided  over  agriculture,  and  men  no  longer  butchered 
each  other  after  she  had  revealed  to  them  the  valuable 
qualities  of  wheat  and  barley,  which  had  till  then  grown 


156  riiOGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

wild  ;  therefore  they  presented  to  her  the  first  sheaves  of 
their  harvests  as  an  offeriusr.  The  dew  that  refreshed  the 
earth  was  venerated  as  the  tears  of  Isis,  in  memory  of  her 
lost  Osiris.  A  ship  was  carried  in  the  celebration  of  her 
festivals ;  perhaps  to  indicate  that  her  worship  was  im 
ported  into  Egypt.  As  goddess  of  health,  she  was  believed 
to  heal  human  diseases.  Many  medicines  continued  to  be 
called  by  her  name,  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Galen,  a 
famous  Greek  physician,  who  lived  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
one  years  after  Christ.  She  was  particularly  worshipped 
at  Memphis,  where  her  Mysteries  were  celebrated  with 
much  pomp  and  ceremony.  The  festival  continued  eight 
daj's,  during  which  some  of  her  votaries  scourged  them- 
selves severely  at  her  altars.  The  sculptures  represent 
this  favourite  goddess  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  and 
offices.  Sometimes  she  has  a  human  head  with  horns, 
sometimes  a  cow's  head.  Sometimes  she  wears  an  Egyp- 
tian hood,  sometimes  she  is  crowned  with  Lotus  blossoms; 
often  she  is  shrouded  m  a  dark  blue  veil.  She  holds  in 
her  hand  a  staff  like  a  crosier,  or  a  Lotus  stem,  or  the 
sacred  musical  instrument  called  sistrum.  Sometimes  she 
is  nursing  her  infant  Horus,  son  of  Osiris  ;  sometimes  she 
has  the  babe  seated  on  her  knee,  receiving  worship  from 
those  around  her,  with  a  guardian  hawk  over  her  head, 
encircled  by  radii  of  water-plants.  This  holy  family  of 
Egypt  seems  to  have  been  a  favourite  subject  with  those 
old  artists.  Sometimes  they  represent  Isis  protecting  the 
body  of  Osiris  with  her  outstretched  wings.  She  is  always 
by  his  side  in  Amenti,  where  he  presides  as  Judge  of  the 
Dead.  She  reigned  with  him  while  he  was  on  earth,  and 
when  she  died,  they  believed  her  soul  Avas  transferred  to 
Sirius,  which  they  call  Sothis.  Divine  honours  were  paid 
to  this  resplendent  star,  which  was  consecrated  to  Isis,  and 
deemed  the  Birth  Star  of  our  world.  At  the  season  when 
it  rose  before  the  sun,  and  could  therefore  be  visible  in  its 
own  light,  commenced  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  which 
spread  fertility  all  over  the  land.  One  of  the  titles  of  Isia 
was,  "  Sh(!  who  rises  in  the  Dog  Star."    Prayers  addressed 


EGYPT,  167 

to  her  were  believed  to  have  great  efficacy.  Plutarch 
relates  that  Garmathone,  Queen  of  Egypt,  having  lost  her 
son,  prayed  fervently  to  Isis,  at  whose  intercession  Osiris 
descended  to  the  region  of  departed  souls,  and  restored  the 
prince  to  life. 

Egyptians  believed  in  a  host  of  subordinate  deities,  with 
attendant  genii  in  each  department.  Tlie  twelve  months 
were  governed  by  the  Spirits  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  Each  day  was  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
planet  to  which  it  was  consecrated.  The  stars  were  ani- 
mated with  Souls,  supposed  to  take  an  active  interest  in 
the  affairs  of  this  world.  In  hieroglyphic  writing,  a  Star 
signifies  a  Ministering  Spirit.  Canopus,  God  of  Waters, 
was  an  object  of  grateful  worship  ;  so  was  old  Nil  us,  the 
deity  of  their  fertilizing  river,  who  was  always  represented 
by  a  black  image.  Kham,  with  the  goddess  Ranno,  pre- 
sided over  the  fruitfulness  of  Gardens  and  Vineyards.  Her 
symbol  was  a  small  serpent,  which  they,  as  well  as  the 
Hindoos,  supposed  to  protect  such  places, ,  Anouke,  guar- 
dian of  purity  and  household  ties,  is  represented  with  a 
Lotus  in  one  hand,  and  the  Emblem  of  Life  in  the  other. 
Every  human  being  had  an  attendant  Spirit,  from  birth  to 
death.  Beneficent  Spirits  preserved  health  ;  evil  ones  en- 
tered into  men,  and  produced  fits  and  other  diseases.  Air. 
earth,  water,  stones,  plants,  and  animals,  were  all  supposed 
to  be  under  the  influence  of  genii,  good  or  bad. 

Eeverence  for  the  mystery  of  organized  life  led  to  the 
recognition  of  a  masculine  and  feminine  principle  in  all 
things,  spiritual  or  material.  Every  elemental  force  was 
divided  into  two,  the  parents  of  other  forces.  The  active 
wind  was  masculine,  the  passive  mist,  or  inert  atmosphere, 
was  feminine.  Rocks  were  masculine,  the  productive  earth 
feminine.  The  presiding  deity  of  every  district  was  repre- 
sented as  a  Triad,  or  Trinity.  At  Thebes,  it  was  Amun, 
the  creative  Wisdom  ;  Neith,  the  spiritual  Mother  ;  and  a 
third,  supposed  to  represent  the  Universe.  At  Philoe,  it 
was  Osiris,  the  Generating  Cause  ;  Isis,  the  Receptive 
Mould  ;  and  Horus,  the  result.  The  sexual  emblems 
Vol.  I.— 14 


158  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

everywhere  conspicuous  in  tlie  sculptures  of  their  templea 
Avould  seem  impure  in  description,  but  no  clean  and 
thoughtful  mind  could  so  regard  them  while  witnessing 
the  obvious  simplicity  and  solemnity  with  which  the  sub- 
ject is  treated. 

Concerning  future  states  of  existence,  they  held  views 
very  similar  to  those  taught  by  the  Bramins.  The  human 
soul  was  regarded  as  an  emanation  from  the  Universal 
Soul,  and  a  portion  of  him.  It  had  fallen  from  a  state  of 
purity  and  bliss,  and  was  sent  into  this  world  for  expiation. 
Eventuall}^,  it  would  be  absorbed  in  the  Eternal  Source, 
after  many  transmigrations  through  a  great  variety  of 
forms.  Herodotus  says,  "  The  Egyptians  are  the  first  of 
mankind  who  asserted  that  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal. 
When  the  body  perishes,  they  believe  it  enters  the  form 
of  a  newly-born  animal ;  but  when  it  has  passed  through 
all  animals  of  the  earth,  water,  and  air,  it  again  returns  to 
a  human  body.  They  affirm  that  this  series  of  transmi- 
grations is  completed  in  three  thousand  j^ears." 

The  expression  of  Herodotus  seems  to  imply  return  to  a 
new  human  body.  But  it  is  generally  supposed  that  they 
expected  the  soul  would  come  back,  at  the  end  of  that 
period,  to  the  same  body  it  formerly  inhabited  ;  and  there 
seems  no  other  way  of  accounting  for  the  great  care  and 
expense  bestowed  on  embalming  the  dead,  the  size  and 
magnificence  of  the  tombs  built  for  their  reception,  and 
the  numerous  convenient  and  valuable  articles  usually 
deposited  therein. 

Biodorus  Siculus  says:  "The  Egyptians  consider  this 
life  as  of  very  trifling  consequence,  and  they  therefore 
value  in  proportion  a  quiet  repose  after  death.  This  leads 
them  to  consider  the  habitations  of  the  living  as  mere  lodg- 
ings, in  which  as  travellers  they  put  up  for  a  short  time; 
while  they  call  the  sepulchres  of  the  dead  everlasting 
dwellings,  because;  the  dead  continue  in  the  grave  such  an 
immeasurable  length  of  time.  They  therefore  pay  but  little 
attention  to  the  building  of  their  houses,  but  bestow  cost 
and  care,  scarcely  credible,  upon  their  sepulchres." 


EGYPT.  159 

Before  a  funeral,  a  tribunal  of  forty  members  was  assem- 
bled to  inquire  into  tlie  cliaracter  of  the  deceased,  and  decide 
whether  he  was  worthy  of  burial.  Every  one  was  free  to 
appear  as  accuser,  but  false  charges  were  severely  punished. 
If  the  departed  one  was  adjudged  worthy  of  sepulture, 
deities  were  invoked  to  receive  him  among  the  just,  and 
with  many  solemn  ceremonies  he  was  consigned  to  the 
tomb. 

All  the  dead,  both  men  and  women,  were  spoken  of  as 
Osiriana;  by  which  they  intended  to  signify  "gone  to 
Osiris,"  Their  belief  in  One  Supreme  Being,  and  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  must  have  been  very  ancient;  for 
on  a  monument,  which  dates  ages  before  Abraham,  is  found 
this  epitaph  :  "  May  thy  soul  attain  to  the  Creator  of  all 
mankind."  Sculptures  and  paintings  in  these  grand  re- 
ceptacles of  the  dead,  as  translated  by  Champollion,  repre- 
sent the  deceased  ushered  into  the  world  of  spirits  by 
funeral  deities,  who  announce,  "  A  soul  arrived  in 
Amenti !"  Forty  two  Assessors  of  the  Dead  presided  over 
the  fort3^-two  sins  to  which  Egyptians  believed  human 
beings  were  subject.  Each  of  these  assessors  in  turn 
question  the  spirit  that  has  just  parted  from  its  body: 
"  Have  you  blasphemed  ?  Have  you  stolen  sacred  property  ? 
Have  you  lied y  Have  you  been  licentious?  Have  you 
shaken  your  head  at  the  words  of  truth  ?"  (meaning,  "Have 
you  been  sceptical  ?")  Thoth  produces  the  Book  of  Life, 
on  which  he  has  recorded  the  moral  life  of  this  soul.  The 
S3'mbols  of  his  actions  are  put  in  scales  of  Thmei,  Goddess 
of  Truth  and  Justice,  "  who  weighs  hearts  in  the  balance ; 
no  sinner  escapes  her."  These  records  are  presented  to 
Osiris  the  Judge,  and  if  they  are  favourable,  he  raises  his 
sceptre  as  a  signal  to  pass  into  the  abodes  of  the  blest. 
Little  is  now  known  concerning  the  nature  of  the  happiness 
supposed  to  be  in  those  regions.  It  is  mentioned  that 
Osiris  ordered  the  names  of  some  souls  to  be  written  on 
the  Tree  of  Life,  the  fruit  of  which  made  those  who  ate  it 
to  become  as  gods.  Eathcr  more  is  known  concerning  the 
nature  and  degrees  of  punishment.     They  believed  there 


160  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

were  tliree  zones  for  the  residence  of  souls.  The  lowesi 
was  this  earth,  a  zone  of  trial ;  the  second  was  the  zone  of 
the  air,  perpetually  convulsed  by  winds  and  storms,  a  place 
of  temporary  punishment;  the  third  and  highest  was  an 
ethereal  zone  of  rest  and  peace.  In  several  of  the  sculptures 
there  are  indications  of  punishment  by  transmigration  into 
inferior  forms.  Spineto  speaks  of  one,  where,  on  a  flight 
of  steps,  which  formed  a  communication  between  Amenti 
and  the  world,  the  deceased  was  represented  in  the  form 
of  a  dog,  with  his  tail  between  his  legs,  striving  to  escape 
from  the  god  Anubis,  who  was  driving  him  back  to  tliis 
world.  Harriet  Marti neau  thus  describes  another  which 
she  examined  :  "  A  hopeless-looking  pig,  with  a  bristling 
back,  was  in  a  boat,  the  stern  of  which  was  toward  the 
heavenly  regions.  Two  monkeys  were  with  it,  one  at  the 
bow,  the  other  whipping  or  driving  the  pig.  This  was  a 
wicked  soul  sent  back  to  earth  under  the  conduct  of  the 
agents  of  Thoth.  The  busy  and  gleeful  look  of  the  monkeys, 
and  the  humbled  aspect  of  the  pig  were  powerfully  given. 
This  was  the  lowest  state  of  the  punished  soul ;  but  it  would 
have  to  pass  through  some  very  mournful  ones,  and  for  a 
very  long  time ;  to  be  probably  a  wolf,  scorpion,  kite,  or 
some  other  odious  creature,  in  weary  succession." 

In  some  of  these  monuments,  the  deceased  is  represented 
with  a  chain  round  his  neck,  led  by  a  procession  of  Spirits, 
each  with  a  star  over  his  head.  Progressive  states  of  the 
soul,  after  it  leaves  this  lower  zone,  are  indicated  by  a 
series  of  twelve  small  apartments,  the  entrance  of  each 
guarded  by  a  Serpent,  with  his  name  over  him,  and  the 
inscription,  "  He  dwells  above  this  great  door,  and  opens 
it  to  the  God  Sun."  According  to  Champollion,  one  series 
of  these  abodes  bear  this  inscription :  "  These  hostile  souls 
see  not  our  god  when  he  casts  the  rays  from  his  disk ;  they 
no  longer  dwell  in  the  terrestrial  world ;  and  they  hear  not 
the  voice  of  the  great  god,  when  he  traverses  their  zones." 
Over  another  series  is  written  :  "  These  have  found  grace 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Great  God.  They  dwell  in  the  abodes 
of  glory;  those  in  which  the  heavenly  life  Ls  led.     The 


EGYPT.  161 

bodies  wliicli  they  have  abandoned  will  repose  forever  in 
their  tombs,  while  they  will  enjoy  the  presence  of  the 
Supreme  God." 

Egyptians  considered  their  own  country  as  peculiarly 
privileged,  and  set  apart  from  others.  They  called  it  "The 
Pure  Land ;"  "  Kegion  of  Justice  and  Truth."  They  were 
extremely  courteous  to  foreigners  in  all  things  unconnected 
with  religious  scruples  ;  but  they  considered  it  unclean  to 
eat  or  drink  with  them.  They  were  more  partial  to  the 
Grecians  than  any  other  nation,  but  they  deemed  it  pollu- 
tion to  kiss  a  Greek,  or  touch  the  knife  with  which  he  cut 
his  food,  or  to  use  any  of  his  cooking  utensils;  because 
Greeks  were  accustomed  to  eat  the  beef  of  cows,  the  most 
sacred  of  all  animals  in  Egypt.  It  is  recorded  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  that  when  the  brethren  of  Joseph  were 
invited  to  eat,  "  they  set  on  for  him  by  himself,  and  for  them 
by  themsel  ves,  and  for  the  Egyptians  by  themselves ;  because 
the  Egyptians  may  not  eat  bread  with  the  Hebrews ;  for 
that  is  an  abomination  unto  them."  Though  Joseph  was 
so  high  in  favour  with  Pharaoh,  he  was  excluded  by  the 
same  custom  which  now  prevents  wealthy  Hindoos  from 
dining  at  the  same  table  with  their  British  governors. 

The  idea  of  successive  grades  of  emanations  from  the 
Deity  introduced  a  distinction  of  castes  into  Egypt,  as  it 
did  in  Ilindostan.  Priests  and  kings  were  believed  to  have 
emanated  before  labourers,  who,  on  account  of  being  further 
removed  from  the  Divine  Source  of  Being,  were  supposed 
to  have  received  a  smaller  and  more  attenuated  influence 
of  his  Pure  Spirit.  Priests,  warriors,  and  labourers  con- 
stituted the  principal  castes ;  but  the  latter  were  subdivided 
into  various  classes.  Fishermen,  and  those  who  tended 
herds  and  flocks,  were  among  the  lowest.  The  caste  of 
swine-herds  was  the  most  despised,  and  their  situation  seems 
CO  have  been  similar  to  the  wretched  Pariahs  of  Hindostan, 
They  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  temples,  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  priests,  or  to  hold  any  communication  with 
the  higher  castes.  They  were  obliged  to  live  in  places  set 
apart  for  them,  and  it  was  pollution  to  touch  any  vessel 
Vol.  I.— 14* 


162  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS.      . 

they  had  used.  Egyptians  supposed  that  Evil  Spirits,  and 
the  souls  of  impure  men,  entered  into  swine,  which  they 
regarded  as  the  most  unclean  of  all  animals.  The  higher 
castes  had  great  horror  of  tasting  the  flesh,  and  if  they  hap- 
pened to  touch  the  creatures,  even  by  accident,  they  went 
through  religious  purifications  to  cleanse  themselves  from 
pollution.  They  were,  however,  necessary  ;  for  when  they 
sowed  their  lands,  soaked  by  inundation  of  the  Nile,  herds 
of  swine  were  driven  over  the  fields,  to  trample  the  seed 
into  the  earth.  Because  they  thus  assisted  the  Fructifying 
Principle,  a  hog  was  annually  sacrified  to  Osiris  in  every 
house.  The  soul  imprisoned  in  the  pig,  for  punishment, 
expiated  its  sins  by  being  sacrificed ;  thus  a  debt  of  gratitude 
was  paid  to  the  animal. 

In  addition  to  pride  of  caste,  there  were  other  reasons 
for  Egyptian  prejudice  against  sliepherds.  Their  policy 
was  opposed  to  the  nomadic  life,  which  they  knew  was 
fatal  to  the  progress  of  civilization  ;  therefore,  the  descend- 
ants of  Jacob  were  required  to  settle  in  one  territory,  which 
would  lead  to  the  necessity  of  building  towns.  They  had^ 
moreover,  a  strong  national  animosity  to  wandering  herds- 
men, in  consequence  of  what  they  had  suffered  by  the  ir- 
ruption of  Pali,  or  Shepherds,  from  the  East.  The  monarchs. 
who  compelled  them  to  toil  in  building  the  great  pj-ramids, 
were  of  that  odious  race.  Herodotus  says  they  had  such  an 
extreme  aversion  to  their  memory,  that  they  avoided  men- 
tioning them,  and  called  their  pyramids  by  the  name  of  a 
shepherd  who  fed  his  cattle  in  those  places.  Thus  there  was 
a  threefold  reason  why  Joseph  should  sa}'-,  "  Shepherds  are 
an  abomination  unto  the  Egyptians."  They  made  a  dis- 
tinction in  favour  of  their  own  herdsmen,  who  tended  cattle 
connected  with  agricultural  pursuits  in  their  villages.  Such 
men,  though  humble  in  rank,  were  not  detested  like  tribes 
of  roving  shepherds.  To  a  certain  degree,  they  were  cared 
for  by  the  jiriests,  who  prescribed  such  food  for  them  as 
they  deemed  suitable  ;  bread  made  of  bran,  fish,  the  flesh 
of  some  few  animals,  and  barley-beer  for  drink. 

Circumcision,  being  closely  connected  with  their  ideas  of 


EGYPT.  163 

health  and  cleanliness,  was  another  barrier  between  Eg)^p- 
tians  and  foreigners.  It  is  said  Pytliagoras  was  obliged  to 
conform  to  thiscListom  before  liecould  gain  admission  to  their 
religious  Mysteries,  and  that  he  nearly  died  in  consequence. 
Herodotus  says  :  "  As  this  practice  can  be  traced,  both  in 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  to  the  remotest  antiquity,  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  which  first  introduced  it.  The  Phoenicians 
and  the  Syrians  of  Palestine  acknowledge  that  they  bor- 
rowed it  from  Egypt.  Male  children,  except  in  those 
places  which  have  borrowed  the  custom  from  hence,  are 
left  as  nature  formed  them."  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  says: 
"  That  this  custom  was  established  long  before  the  arrival 
of  Joseph  in  Egypt  is  proved  by  the  ancient  monuments." 
The  Egyptian  states,  like  their  Ethiopian  ancestors  at 
Meroe,  were  originally  governed  by  priests  only.  Each 
district  had  a  High  Priest,  who  reigned  in  the  name  of 
some  god,  and  had  subordinate  priests  under  him.  The 
caste  of  warriors  afterward  raised  themselves  to  the  royal 
dignity,  and  Menes  was  the  first  king.  But  though  the 
I'ulers  were  thenceforth  from  the  military  caste,  the  priests 
kept  them  in  almost  complete  de|)endence.  They  were 
not  allowed  to  administer  punishments  according  to  their 
own  will,  or  judgment,  but  in  conformity  to  laws  which 
the  gods  had  prescribed  through  the  medium  of  priests. 
QMiey  had  constant  supervision  over  affairs  of  the  State  and 
the  army ;  they  made  daily  regulations  concerning  religious 
ceremonies  to  be  performed  by  the  royal  household,  and 
even  concerning  the  food  upon  their  tables.  None  but  the 
sons  of  High  Priests  were  allowed  to  be  in  attendance 
upon  the  king's  person.  Before  he  could  be  anointed,  he 
was  required  to  enter  the  priesthood,  and  be  initiated  into 
their  religious  mysteries.  He  was  called  Phra,  which  sig- 
nifies of  the  Sun.  In  this  manner  was  indicated  the  divine 
origin  of  government,  and  the  universal  and  equal  benefi- 
ccmcc  which  ought  to  characterize  it.  The  hierogljqjhic 
title  of  kings  was  "  Son  of  the  Sun."  Phra,  which  we  call 
Pharaoh,  was  applied  to  all  their  monarchs  as  the  title  of 
Czar  is  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia ;  hence,  it  is  often  diffi- 


164:  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS  IDEAS. 

cult  to  ascertain  which  particular  Pharaoh  is  meant  on  the 
monumental  records. 

Not  only  was  the  priest  caste  generally  hereditary,  but 
also  the  priesthood  of  each  particular  deity  ;  and  in  each 
of  these  orders  the  High  Priesthood  descended  lineally  in 
some  particular  family.  The  son  of  a  priest  at  Memphis 
could  not  become  a  member  of  the  college  of  priests  at 
Ileliopolis,  and  a  priest  at  Thebes  could  not  join  the  sacer- 
dotal order  at  Memphis.  This  arose  from  the  fact  that 
each  temple  had  large  landed  property  attached  to  it,  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  religious  service.  The  revenues 
were  drawn  by  priests,  and  transmitted  to  their  posterity 
as  a  perpetual  inheritance.  These  extensive  estates  were 
let  out  to  the  subordinate  castes,  and  the  rents  formed  a 
treasury  for  the  common  use  of  the  sacerdotal  order  be- 
longing to  the  temple.  From  this  fund,  priests  and  their 
families  v>^ere  supplied  with  free  tables.  In  addition  to 
this  fixed  income,  there  were  the  daily  sacrilices  and  offer- 
ings of  fruit  and  grain  at  the  temples  ;  they  also  carried 
on  many  profitable  branches  of  business,  in  consequence 
of  being  the  only  depositories  of  such  knowledge  as  ex- 
isted. Herodotus  says  :  "  So  many  dishes  were  furnished 
daily  of  those  kinds  of  meat  which  their  laws  allowed  them 
to  eat,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  wine ;  for  they  had  the 
privilege  of  enjoying  that  luxury,  which  was  forbidden  to 
the  lower  castes.  Thus  there  was  no  need  for  them  to 
contribute  anything  from  their  private  means  toward  their 
own  support."  The  priestly  families  were  in  fact  the  high- 
est and  wealthiest  in  the  countr}',  except  the  king.  They 
were  exempted  from  taxation,  and  it  is  said  that  one-third 
of  tlie  land  of  Egypt  was  allotted  to  them.  When  Josepli 
bought  up  the  lands,  it  is  recorded  that  he  left  the  portion 
of  the  priests  untouched.  The  places  of  interment  be- 
longed to  them,  and  as  the  use  of  them  was  paid  for,  they 
must  have  been  sources  of  considerable  emolument. 

As  the  civil  law  was  included  in  the  Sacred  Books, 
])ri(\sts  were  the  only  jiulgcs.  IMic  Chief  Judge,  who  was 
also  High  Priest,  wore  a  golden  chain  on  which  was  sus- 


EGYPT.  l(io 

pcnded  an  image  of  Thmei,  Goddess  of  Truth  and  Justice, 
graven  on  a  sapphire,  and  set  round  Ayith  precious  stones 
of  various  colours.  He  pronounced  his  decision  by  toucli- 
ing  the  successful  applicant  with  this  ligurc.  Several 
representations  of  these  breast-plates  are  extant  in  Euro- 
pean museums,  or  to  be  seen  on  Egyptian  monuments. 
Some  of  them  contained  two  figures,  an  image  of  Ra,  the 
Sun,  and  of  Thmei;  the  signification  being  Light  and 
Truth,  or  Light  and  Justice. 

Priests  were  also  the  only  physicians.  They  prescribed 
the  articles  of  food  to  be  used  by  each  class  of  people ; 
and  according  to  the  testimony  of  Herodotus  the  Egyptians 
were  remarkably  healthy.  Each  part  of  the  body  was 
believed  to  be  under  the  especial  care  of  some  particular 
deity,  who  must  be  invoked,  with  prescribed  offerings  and 
ceremonies,  in  case  of  disease.  Invalids  were  carried  to 
the  temples,  and  it  v/as  supposed  they  would  be  cured,  if 
the  priest  laid  his  hands  on  them,  and  recited  appropriate 
prayers.  They  probably  had  some  knowledge  valuable 
for  the  preservation  and  restoration  of  health ;  for  their 
medical  schools  became  renowned.  Tliere  are  indications 
that  some  of  their  remedies  were  of  a  magnetic  nature. 
Solon,  who  had  been  in  Egypt,  says,  "  Touching  with  the 
hands  will  immediately  restore  health."  ^schylus,  the 
famous  Greek  poet,  makes  one  of  his  characters  in  the 
tragedy  of  Prometheus  say,  when  speaking  of  the  shores 
of  the  Nile,  "  There  Jupiter  Ammon  will  render  you  sane, 
stroking  you  with  gentle  hand,  and  simply  touching  you." 
A  high  degree  of  cleanliness,  both  in  person  and  clothing, 
was  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians; habits  which  they  doubtless  owed  to  the  instructions 
of  their  priests. 

As  all  the  sciences  were  deemed  direct  revelations  from 
the  gods,  a  degree  of  sacredness  was  attached  to  knowl- 
edge, of  which  we  in  modern  times  can  form  no  idea. 
Such  learning  as  the  priests  had,  manifested  itself  in  results 
which  seemed  to  the  uninitiated  like  divination  dnd  magic. 
Perhaps  they  themselves,  with  the  scanty  information  of 


166  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

that  time,  and  their  reverential  Egyptian  tendencies, 
thought  many  things  miraculous,  which  to  us  would 
appear  very  simple.  Whether  they  were  honest  or  not, 
in  assuming  to  be  supernaturally  gifted,  the  people  most 
devoutly  believed  they  had  magical  power  to  bring  birds 
from  the  air  at  their  bidding,  to  lure  serpents  from  their 
hiding-places,  to  cast  out  Evil  Spirits,  and  cure  the  dis- 
eases. They  placed  the  utmost  reliance  on  their  interpre- 
tation of  dreams,  their  predictions  from  tlie  aspect  of  the 
stars,  and  the  prophecies  they  made  from  examining  the 
entrails  of  victims  sacrificed  to  the  gods. 

There  were  many  gradations  of  rank  among  the  priest- 
hood. Those  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  great  gods 
were  regarded  with  far  more  veneration  than  those  who 
attended  upon  minor  and  local  deities.  Some  were  distin- 
guished above  others  by  their  vocation.  There  were 
bands  of  Musicians  among  them,  trained  to  chant  the 
hymns,  to  sing  in  chorus,  to  perform  on  harps,  flutes,  and 
a  ringing  instrument  called  the  sistrum.  The  skilful 
among  these  were  held  in  much  honour.  But  the  Prophets 
were  the  highest  class  of  priests.  On  public  occasions, 
they  took  precedence  of  all  others,  except  the  High  Priests 
of  the  great  temples.  They  made  astronomy  their  pecu- 
liar study.  They  knew  the  figure  of  the  earth,  and  how 
to  calculate  solar  and  lunar  eclipses.  From  very  ancient 
time,  they  had  observed  the  order  and  movement  of  the 
stars,  and  recorded  them  with  the  utmost  care.  Ramses 
the  Great,  generally  called  Sesostris,  is  supposed  to  have 
reigned  one  thousand  five  hundred  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  about  coeval  with  Moses,  or  a  century  later.  In 
the  tomb  of  this  monarch  was  found  a  large  massive  circle 
of  wrought  gold,  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
live  degrees,  and  each  division  marked  the  rising  and 
setting  (jf  the  stars  for  each  day.  This  fact  proves  how 
early  they  were  advanced  in  astronomy.  In  their  great 
theories  of  mutual  ilcpcnilancc  Ix^tween  all  things  in  the 
universe  was  incduded  a  belief  in  some  mysterious  relation 
between  the  Spirits  of  the  Stars  and  human  souls;  so  that 


EGYPT.  167 

the  destiny  of  mortals  was  regulated  by  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  famous 
system  of  iVstrology.  From  the  eoiijunetion  of  planets  at 
the  hour  of  birth,  they  prophesied  what  would  be  the 
temj)erament  of  an  infant,  what  life  he  would  live,  and 
wliat  death  he  would  die.  Diodorus,  who  wrote  in  the 
century  preceding  Christ,  says,  "  They  frequently  foretell 
with  the  greatest  aeeuracy  what  is  about  to  happen  to 
mankind  ;  showing  the  failure  or  abundance  of  crops,  and 
the  epidemic  diseases  about  to  befal  men  or  cattle.  Earth- 
quakes, deluges,  rising  of  comets,  and  all  those  phenomena, 
the  knowledge  of  which  appears  impossible  to  common 
compreliensions,  they  foresee  by  means  of  their  long-con- 
tinued observations."  Plato  informs  us  that  they  believed 
tliis  earth  had  been,  and  would  be,  subject  to  destruction 
bv  water  and  lire ;  and  that  the  tradition  of  Phaeton's 
having  borrowed  the  cliariot  of  the  sun,  and  set  the  world 
in  flames,  contained  an  historical  fact  in  a  fabulous  form. 
The  returns  of  such  catastrophes  were  fixed  by  them 
according  to  the  period  of  their  Great  Astronomical  Year, 
when  the  sun,  moon,  and  all  the  planets  returned  to  the 
same  sign  in  the  zodiac  whence  they  had  started.  This 
astronomical  cycle  included  ages  in  its  revolution.  In  its 
winter  occurred  a  universal  deluge,  and  in  its  summer,  a 
conflagration  of  tlie  world.  After  this  destruction,  they 
believed  all  things  would  be  renewed,  to  pass  through 
another  succession  of  changes. 

In  early  times,  priests  lived  with  great  simplicity. 
Sometimes  they  slept  on  the  bare  ground,  sometimes  on 
mats  spread  on  frames  of  wicker-work,  with  a  half  cylinder 
of  wood  for  a  pillow.  Thej^  married  but  one  wife,  and  she 
was  often  their  sister,  on  account  of  the  prevailing  idea  that 
such  marriages  were  fortunate.  They  ate  very  plain  food 
in  stated  quantities.  In  xcry  ancient  times,  the  priests, 
including  kings,  used  no  wine;  but  in  later  times,  a 
Tuoderate  portion,  prescribed  by  law,  was  dealt  to  them. 
Their  diet  was  strictly  regulated,  so  careful  were  they  that 
"  the  body  should  sit  light  upon  the  soul."     Peas,  leeks, 


168  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

garlic,  onions,  fish,  and  salt  were  forbidden.  Pork  waa 
their  abhorrence,  and  they  had  such  an  aversion  to  beans 
that  they  would  not  even  touch  them,  or  allow  them  to  be 
sown  in  Egypt.  Their  cleanliness  was  extreme.  They 
shaved  their  heads,  and  every  three  days  shaved  their 
whole  bodies.  They  bathed  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
often  in  the  night  also;  and  the  most  devout  among  them 
used  water  consecrated  to  the  sacred  bird  Ibis.  They  wore 
garments  of  white  linen,  deeming  it  more  cleanly  than 
cloth  made  from  the  hair  of  animals.  If  they  had  occasion 
to  wear  a  woollen  cloak  or  mantle,  they  put  it  off  before 
entering  a  temple ;  so  scrupulous  were  they  that  nothing 
impure  should  come  into  the  presence  of  the  gods. 

There  were  no  ])riestesses  in  Egypt,  but  women  were 
devoted  to  the  service  of  the  temple,  the  same  as  in 
Hindostan,  to  perform  in  sacred  music  and  dances,  gather 
fresh  flowers  for  the  altars,  and  feed  the  consecrated 
animals.  The  office  was  deemed  so  honourable,  that  it  was 
reserved  for  the  wives  and  daughters  of  kings  and  priests. 
The  sculptures  often  represent  them  assisting  in  religions 
ceremonies,  or  playing  on  musical  instruments  in  proces- 
sions to  the  temple. 

Oracles  were  frequently  delivered  by  women.  The 
daughter  of  Sesostris  is  said  to  have  been  so  skilled  in 
divination,  that  she  foretold  to  her  father  his  future  brilliant 
success.  The  monarch,  being  himself  a  priest,  had  access 
to  all  their  secret  sciences;  nevertheless,  his  conduct  on 
important  occasions  was  n^ucli  influenced  by  her  predic- 
tions. Her  prophecies  were  noted  and  respected  in  the 
temj)le  itself 

Oracles  were  of  very  remote  date.  The  most  ancient 
was  the  oracle  of  Amun  at  Meroe.  ']''!iere  was  a  vory 
celebrated  one  at  the  teni])le  of  Amun  in  Thebes.  It  was 
consultcfl  hy  many  nations,  and  great  re'liance  was  placed 
upon  its  authority.  Tlic  divini;  gift  was  supposed  to  be 
ini])arted  to  a  woman  coiiscri'iitcd  to  tlie  service  of  the 
di'ity.  She  slept  in  tlic  temple  where  Amun  Ra  was 
believed  also  to  be  present.     Oi'aeles  were  supposed  to  be 


EGYPT.  169 

revealed  by  dreams  in  the  temples  of  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus. 
Apis  was  sometimes  consulted.  A  coin  was  deposited  on 
his  altar,  with  certain  ceremonies  and  invocations,  and  the 
first  words,  or  exclamations,  heard  afterward  were  deemed 
prophetic.  In  fact,  oracles  seem  to  have  been  the  main- 
spring, that  regulated  all  the  machinery  of  the  state. 

The  reverential  tendencies  of  the  Egyptians  are  mani- 
fested in  all  memorials  of  their  public  and  private  life.  The 
indications  of  it  often  show  a  tendency  to  excess;  probably 
the  result  of  a  fervid  African  temperament.  At  some  of 
their  religious  festivals,  the  people  abandoned  themselves 
to  the  most  tumultuous  joy;  and  the  number  of  their 
expiatory  sacrifices  show  a  tendency  to  the  extremes  of 
penitence.  Their  kings  dwelt  in  temple-pahaces,  full  of 
sacred  emblems  and  statues  of  the  gods.  No  nation  ever 
surpassed  them  in  the  grandeur  of  religious  festivals.  After 
a  great  victory,  the  king  went  up  to  the  temple  with  liis 
whole  army  to  give  thanks.  Harps,  flutes,  and  the  shrill 
ring  of  the  sistrum,  accompanied  the  chorus  of  sacred 
singers,  clapping  their  hands  to  mark  the  rhythm.  The 
king  rode  in  a  splendid  chariot,  followed  by  trains  of  cap- 
tives. The  priests,  in  fringed  robes  of  linen,  carried 
banners,  shrines,  and  other  sacred  emblems.  The  proces- 
sion closed  with  men  leading  animals  for  sacrifice,  and 
women  carrying  incense  and  flowers.  Through  long 
avenues  of  colossal  sphinxes  and  gigantic  statues,  they 
marched  up  to  the  temple.  The  troops  drew  up  in  files 
outside,  and  when  the  trumpet  announced  that  the  king  and 
priests  were  offering  sacrifice  within,  they  worshipped  in 
regular  succession  at  altars  provided  for  them.  They  hailed 
the  New  Moon  and  the  Full  Moon  with  religious  lionours, 
ani.I  most  of  their  great  festivals  occurred  at  those  periods. 
At  Spring  time  and  Harvest  they  had  joyful  processions 
of  thanksgiving,  leading  their  children  in  bands  to  the 
temple,  with  sheaves  and  flowers  for  offerings.  The  Nile 
was  as  sacred  to  them  as  Ganges  to  the  Hindoos.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  in  ancient  times  they  had  the  same  cus- 
tom of  offering  to  the  god  of  the  stream  a  virgin  richly 
Vol.  I.— 15  h 


170  PEOGEESS    OF   EELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

dressed.  At  a  later  period,  an  image  of  wax  was  thrown 
into  the  river,  instead  of  the  human  victim.  Wlien  foreign 
kings  married  their  princesses,  it  was  customary  to  send 
them  water  from  the  Nile,  however  great  the  trouble  or 
expense  might  be.  At  the  annual  rising  of  the  river,  the 
priests  went  in  grand  procession,  to  strew  it  with  lotus- 
blossoms,  and  chant  hymns  in  its  praise.  They  burned 
frankincense  to  the  Sun,  at  its  rising,  meridian,  and  setting, 
and  offered  to  it  solemn  sacrifices  on  the  fourth  day  of 
every  month.  Tliey  carried  offerings  to  the  temples  in 
token  of  gratitude  for  recovery  from  sickness.  They 
seated  an  image  of  the  dead  at  their  banquets,  to  remind 
them  of  their  own  mortality.  They  built  their  tombs  with 
upper  apartments  richly  sculptured  and  painted.  There 
the  priests  went  on  stated  occasions  to  perform  religious 
ceremonies,  accompanied  by  relatives  bringing  offerings  to 
the  departed,  not  to  his  mortal  remains,  but  to  the  portion 
of  divinity  that  was  in  him,  and  had  gone  elsewhere.  They 
consecrated  the  very  rocks  with  which  their  sacred  edifices 
were  to  be  built.  Tiiey  dedicated  each  montli  and  each 
day  to  the  service  of  some  particular  deity.  Their  ancient 
attitude  of  worshijD  was  sitting  with  the  tliighs  resting  on 
the  heels.  Many  of  the  statues  were  in  this  position.  The 
sculptures  represent  kings  and  priests  worshipping  with 
hands  uplifted  before  their  faces,  the  palms  turned  toward 
the  deity.  Their  common  oblations  were  wine,  oil,  meal, 
cakes,  turtle-doves,  young  pigeons,  fruit,  flowers,  vases, 
jewels,  or  whatever  they  had  vowed.  On  important  occa- 
sions they  burned  incense  and  sacrificed  red  bullocks.  If 
a  single  black  hair  was  found  on  the  animal,  or  if  every 
hair  did  not  grow  in  its  natural  and  proper  form,  the  priest 
rejected  it;  but  if  he  found  it  without  blemish,  he  put  his 
seal  upon  it.  Wine  was  ])ourod  on  the  altar,  a  fire  kindled 
thereon,  and  the  god  solemnly  invoked.  Then  they  cut 
the  head  from  the  victim,  saying:  "  If  there  be  any  evil  to 
come  upon  any  part  of  P]gypt,  may  it  light  on  this  head." 
On  account  of  this  custom,  no  Egyptian  would  eat  the 
head  of  a  beast.    If  there  were  Greeks  in  the  market,  it  waa 


EGYPT.  171 

Bold  to  them;  if  not,  it  was  thrown  into  the  river.  The 
entrails  of  the  victim  were  taken  out  and  consulted  by  the 
priests  for  auguries.  The  legs,  shoulders,  and  loins  Avere' 
cut  off  for  food,  and  the  body  was  burned  as  an  offering, 
after  being  stuffed  with  bread,  honey,  figs,  raisins,  and 
various  aromatics.  On  some  occasions,  the  spectators 
scourged  therhselves  while  it  was  burning.  The  priests 
commenced  the  sacrifice  after  a  fast,  and  finished  by  feast- 
ing on  the  portions  set  apart  for  them. 

There  was  a  grand  celebration,  called  the  Feast  of  Lamps, 
held  at  Sais,  in  honour  of  Neith.  Those  who  did  not  at- 
tend the  ceremony,  as  well  as  those  who  did,  burned  lamps 
before  their  houses  all  night,  filled  with  oil  and  salt;  thus 
all  Egypt  was  illuminated.  It  was  deemed  a  great  irrever- 
ence to  the  goddess  for  any  one  to  omit  this  ceremony. 

At  Bubastis  was  an  annual  festival  in  honour  of  its  pre- 
siding goddess.  It  was  probably  connected  with  some 
holy  object  of  pilgrimage  ;  for  people  flocked  to  it  from  all 
parts  of  the  country.  It  sometimes  brought  together  a 
concourse  of  "  seven  hundred  thousand  men  and  women, 
not  to  mention  children."  The  Nile,  overspread  with 
highly  ornamented  barges,  resembled  a  floating  city,  and 
the  air  resounded  with  choruses  and  musical  instruments. 
When  these  companies  approached  a  city,  they  landed  to 
frolic  and  bandy  jests  with  those  on  shore.  The  women 
danced,  played  on  musical  instruments,  and  sometimes 
threw  aside  all  their  garments. 

In  autumn,  they  had  mournful  processions  in  search  of 
the  lost  Osiris,  weeping  and  lamenting  as  they  went.  One 
of  the  ceremonies  was  to  lead  the  Sacred  Cow  seven  times 
round  the  temple.  From  the  astronomical  character  of 
their  worship,  it  is  a  natural  inference  that  the  circuits 
round  the  temple,  indicated  the  passage  of  the  sun  through 
the  seven  signs  of  the  zodiac.  When  the  genial  warmth 
of  spring  returned,  they  had  joyful  processions,  exulting 
over  Osiris  found. 

The  twenty-fifth  day  of  December  was  a  festival  in  honour 
of  the  birth-day  of  Ilorus.     The  commemoration  of  that 


172  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

day,  both  in  ancient  liindostan  and  ancient  Egypt,  was 
probably  owing  to  tiie  fact  that  the  sun  at  that  period 
begins  to  return  from  the  winter  solstice. 

Of  all  their  religious  festivals,  none  were  so  grand  and 
solemn  as  those  consecrated  to  Osiris  and  Isis,  called  the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Mysteries.  Little  is  known  of  them,  on 
account  of  the  profound  secresy  with  which  they  were  ob- 
served, and  the  penalty  of  death  which  awaited  any  one 
who  should  divulge  them.  None  but  priests  were  initiated, 
until  the  later  times,  and  then  the  exceptions  were  very 
rare.  The  honour  of  ascending  to  the  Greater  Mysteries 
was  difficult  to  attain,  and  very  highly  appreciated.  Even 
a  prince  could  not  approach  them  until  he  had  entered  the 
priesthood  ;  and  not  all  the  priests  were  admitted.  The 
candidates  must  be  of  unsullied  moral  character,  and  go 
through  a  long  process  of  study  and  purification.  When 
initiation  commenced,  they  were  required  to  prepare  them- 
selves by  long  fasts,  and  to  undergo  a  series  of  very  severe 
ordeals,  during  which  they  were  required  to  manifest  the 
most  perfect  obedience  and  resignation.  The  blazing  suns 
at  midnight,  fiery  serpents,  visions  of  the  gods,  and  other 
splendid  and  sublime  pageantry  employed  during  the  cele- 
bration of  these  Mysteries,  are  supposed  to  have  been  sym- 
bolical of  the  origin  of  the  soul,  its  fall  to  earth,  its  travels 
through  successive  spheres,  and  final  return  to  its  home  of 
tranquil  glory.  Some  of  the  ceremonies  and  hymns  to  the 
gods,  said,  to  have  been  immodest,  doubtless  originated  in 
their  mystical  ideas  concerning  the  masculine  and  feminine 
principles  that  pervade  the  universe  ;  ideas  little  likely  to 
be  rightly  understood  or  appreciated,  when  viewed  through 
the  medium  of  modern  habits  of  thou<2;ht. 

Jn  all  the  religious  observances  of  Egypt,  the  priests 
alone  understood  the  meaning  of  what  they  witnessed;  for 
great  care  was  taken  to  hide  theological  theories  under  a 
thick  veil  of  mysterious  emblems.  They  had  moreover 
two  sets  of  written  characters.  One,  called  the  sacred  or 
sacerdotal  writing,  was  a  concise  abridgment  of  the  hiero- 
gly{)hics,  applied   to  all  religious  and   scientific   subjects, 


EGYPT.  173 

and  known  only  to  the  priests.  Another,  called  the  epis- 
tolary or  common  style,  was  used  for  social  and  commercial 
purposes,  and  taught  only  to  priests  and  merchants.  If 
the  names  of  deities  occurred,  they  were  always  expressed 
by  symbolic  characters,  not  by  the  letters  which  formed 
the  name;  it  being  deemed  irreverent  to  write  them  like 
other  words.  Chainpollion  says  the  name  of  their  princi- 
pal deity  was  pronounced  by  sounds  which  expressed  the 
written  symbol,  and  were  quite  different  from  the  holy 
name  itself. 

The  laws  of  Egypt  were  handed  down  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  regarded  with  the  utmost  veneration  as  a  por- 
tion of  religion.  Their  first  legislator  represented  them  as 
dictated  by  the  gods  themselves,  and  framed  expressly  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind  by  their  secretary  Thoth,  usually 
called  Hermes.  "An  idea,"  says  Diodorus,  "adopted  with 
success  by  many  other  lawgivers,  who  have  thus  insured 
respect  for  their  institutions."  By  Thoth,  the  priests 
doubtless  understood  merely  the  agency  of  intellect  in 
producing  laws,  but  the  people  took  it  literally. 

The  Sacred  Books  of  Hermes,  containing  the  laws, 
science,  and  theology  of  Egypt,  they  declared  to  have 
been  all  composed  during  the  reign  of  the  gods,  preceding 
that  of  their  first  king  Menes,  Allusions  on  very  ancient 
monuments  prove  their  great  antiquity.  There  were  four 
of  them,  and  the  subdivisions  of  the  whole  made  forty-two 
volumes.  These  numbers  correspond  exactly  to  those  of 
the  Yedas,  which  the  Pouranas  of  Plindostan  inform  us 
were  carried  into  Egypt  by  the  Yadavas.  The  subjects 
treated  of  were  likewise  extremely  similar ;  but  whether 
the  Books  of  Hermes  were  copies  of  the  Vedas,  it  is  now 
impossible  fcr  the  learning  of  man  to  discover.  They 
were  deposited  in  the  inmost  holy  recesses  of  the  temples, 
and  none  but  the  higher  order  of  priests  were  allowed  to 
read  them.  They  were  carried  reverently  in  all  great 
religious  processions.  The  Chief  Priests  carried  ten  vol- 
umes relating  to  the  emanations  of  the  gods,  the  formation 
of  the  world,  the  divine  annunciation  of  laws  and  rules 
Vol.  L— 15* 


17-i  PPvOGP.ESS   OF   RELiniOUS    IDEAS. 

for  the  priesthood.  The  Propliets  carried  four,  treating  of 
astronomy  and  astroh)gj.  The  leader  of  the  sacred  mu- 
sical band  carried  two,  containing  hymns  to  the  gods,  and 
maxims  to  guide  the  conduct  of  the  king;  which  the 
Chanter  was  required  to  know  by  heart.  Such  was  the 
reputed  antiquity  and  sanctity  of  these  Egyptian  hymns, 
that  Plato  says  they  were  ascribed  to  Isis,  and  believed  to 
be  literally  ten  thousand  years  old.  Servitors  of  the  tem- 
ple carried  ten  volumes  more,  containing  forms  of  prayer, 
and  rules  for  burnt-offerings,  sheaf-offerings,  fruit-offerings, 
festivals  and  processions.  The  other  volumes  treated  of 
philosophy  and  sciences,  including  anatom}^  and  medicine. 
These  books  were  very  famous  in  their  day,  and  gave  rise 
to  theories  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  by  which  people, 
even  on  the  borders  of  our  own  time,  have  sought  to 
foretell  destiny  from  the  aspect  of  the  stars,  and  make  gold 
by  some  mysterious  chemical  process.  The  Roman  em- 
peror Severus  collected  all  writings  on  their  Mysteries, 
and  buried  them  in  the  tomb  of  Alexander  the  Great;  and 
Diocletian  destroyed  all  their  books  on  alchemy,  lest 
Egypt  should  become  too  rich  to  remain  tributary  to  the 
Roman  empire.  The  once  world-renowned  Books  of 
Hermes  have  been  lost  these  fifteen  hundred  years.  Euse- 
bius.  Bishop  of  Cassarea,  who  flourished  about  three  hun- 
dred years  after  Christ,  says  these  volumes  contained  the 
question,  "Have  you  not  been  informed  that  all  individual 
souls  arc  emanations  from  the  One  Soul  of  the  Universe?" 
Jamblichus,  a  celebrated  Platonic  philosopher  of  nearly 
the  same  period,  gives  the  following  extract  from  one  of 
these  books:  "Before  all  things  that  essentially  exist,  and 
before  the  principles  of  all  things,  there  existed  One  God, 
iinmovca])le  in  the  solitude  of  his  unity.  He  is  established 
self-begotten,  the  only  Father,  who  is  truly  good.  lie  is 
the  fountain  of  all  things,  the  root  of  all  primary  int(>lli- 
gible  existing  forms.  Out  of  this  One,  the  self-ruling  God 
made  himself  shine  forth;  wherefore,  he  is  the  father  of 
himself,  and  self-ruling;  for  he  is  the  First  Principle  and 
God  of  gods.     This  Indivisible  One  is  venerated  in  si- 


EGYPT.  175 

Icnce."  These  extracts  resemble  portions  of  the  Yedas, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  are  authentic;  for  at  that 
late  period  spurious  books  of  Ilennes  were  extant.  That 
the  d(.)Clrino  of  .One  Supreme  Being  was  taught  by  the 
more  enhghtcued  of  the  ancient  priests,  togetlier  with 
other  ideas  for  more  elevated  than  the  external  worsliip 
indicated,  seems  not  to  admit  of  doubt.  Plutarch,  who 
wrote  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  says:  "The  end  of 
all  the  Egyptian  rites  and  mysteiies  was  the  knowledge 
of  that  First  God,  who  is  tlie  Lord  of  all  things,  to  be  dis- 
cerned only  by  the  mind.  Their  theology  had  two  mean- 
ings; the  one  holy  and  symbolical,  the  other  vulgar  and 
literal ;  consequently,  the  figures  of  animals,  which  they 
had  in  their  temples,  and  which  they  seemed  to  adore, 
were  only  so  many  hieroglyphics,  to  represent  the  divine 
attributes."  Damascius,  a  Platonic  philosopher  of  the  fifth 
centur}'',  says:  "The  Egyptian  philosophers  of  our  time 
have  declared  as  a  hidden  truth,  found  in  their  ancient 
writings,  that  there  was  One  Principle  of  all  things, 
praised  under  the  name  of  the  Unknown  Darkness,  and 
that  thrice  repeated."  When  the  French  army  were  in 
Egypt,  they  brought  to  light  an  important  roll  of  papyrus 
written  in  hieroglyphics.  It  treated  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  ceremonies  in  honour  of  the  dead.  The 
soul  on  its  long  journey  through  the  celestial  gates,  from 
sphere  to  sphere,  is  described  as  giving  utterance  to  con- 
fessions, invocations,  and  prayers.  The  first  fifteen 
chapters  form  a  separate  whole,  with  the  general  super- 
scription, "Here  begin  the  sections  of  the  glorifications 
in  the  light  of  Osiris."  This  papyrus  was  found  in  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  of  Thebes.  It  bears  traces  of  having 
been  compiled  at  different  periods;  but  the  learned  Lepsius 
says  the  original  plan  unquestionably  belongs  to  the  re- 
motest age.  He  dates  the  writing  one  thousand  five  or  six 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  sa\'s  it  is 
.doubtless  a  fi'agment  of  the  Sacred  Books  ascribed  to 
Hermes. 

The  Pantheistic  idea  that  a  portion  of  God  is  in  every 


176  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

creature,  and  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  human  souls 
into  animals,  produced  effects  similar  to  those  in  Ilindostan. 
Egyptian  priests  had  a  great  horror  of  blood.  Tlie_y  never 
shed  it  except  in  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  that  only  upon 
very  important  occasions.  Herodotus  says  :  "  The  Egyp- 
tians put  no  cattle  to  death  ;"  and  he  informs  us  that  ves- 
sels were  kept  to  convey  away  the  bones  of  those  that  died, 
and  bury  them  in  an  island  appropriated  to  that  purpose. 
Why  some  animals  were  worshipped,  and  others  not,  and 
why  some  of  the  favoured  ones  should  have  been  the  least 
sagacious  or  agreeable  of  beasts,  Avas  perhaps  known  to 
themselves  and  the  Hindoos,  but  is  likely  to  remain  an 
unsolved  riddle  for  us.  In  their  complicated  system  of  an 
eternal  relation  between  all  things  in  the  universe,  each 
deity  had  certain  stars,  plants  and  animals,  mysteriously 
allied  to  him,  and  under  his  peculiar  protection.  Thus  the 
Cow  and  the  Lotus  were  sacred  to  Isis ;  the  Bull  and  the 
fragrant  blossom  of  the  Golden  Bean  were  sacred  to  Osiris. 
Each  of  the  genii  presiding  over  the  signs  of  the  zodiac 
had  some  plants  or  animals  under  his  especial  care.  If  we 
understood  their  sj'stem,  we  might  perhaps  discover  why 
constellations  are  represented  in  the  shape  of  animals,  and 
why  the  Ram  of  Amun,  the  Bull  of  Osiris,  and  the  Goat 
of  Kham,  mark  successive  signs  in  the  zodiac.  In  some 
such  way,  animals  were  first  introduced  into  the  temple  as 
emblems ;  and  afterward  when  mystical  worship  degener- 
ated into  lifeless  superstition,  they  adored  the  emblems  as 
deities.  Some  of  these  animals  were  universally  wor- 
shipped, others  only  in  particular  districts  ;  and  some  were 
more  sumptuously  provided  for  than  others.  Public 
buildings  and  parks,  warm  baths,  carpets,  rich  furniture, 
and  beautiful  female  companions  of  their  own  species,  were 
procured  f)r  them.  They  were  perfumed  with  fragrant 
oils  and  fed  on  dainties.  To  kill  or  maltreat  them  was  the 
greatest  crime,  and  when  they  died,  they  were  embalmed 
and  magnilicently  buried.  Men  and  women  were  set 
ap.irt  to  take  charge  of  them.  The  office  was  hereditary, 
and  considered  exircmely  honourable.     AVhcn  these  func- 


EGYPT.  177 

tionaries  passed  through  villages,  with  the  saered  banners 
of  the  animals  they  served,  people  bowed  to  the  ground 
before  them.  AVhen  chihlren  recovered  from  sickness, 
])arents  shaved  their  hair,  and  gave  the  weight  of  it  in 
gold  or  silver  for  the  support  of  those  animals.  Even  in 
time  of  famine,  wdien  driven  to  eat  human  flesh,  tlie  poj)u- 
lace  refrained  from  destroying  any  of  these  consecrated 
creatures.  If  they  accidentally  found  one  dead,  they  stood 
lamen'ing,  and  proclaiming  with  a  loud  voice  that  they 
found  it  so.  When  Cambyses,  the  Persian,  invaded  Egypt, 
he  took  advantage  of  their  customs,  and  protected  his 
army  by  a  vanguard  of  sacred  animals. 

Of  all  creatures  the  cow  was  held  in  the  greatest  venera- 
tion throughout  Egypt.  On  great  occasions,  they  sacrificed 
unblemished  bulls  or  bullocks  to  the  gods,  but  never 
heifers.  Whoever  killed  one,  even  involuntarily,  was 
punished  with  instant  death. 

A  Bull  called  Apis,  supposed  by  some  to  represent  the 
celestial  bull  of  the  zodiac,  was  inaugurated  with  many 
ceremonies,  and  worshipped  by  the  people  as  a  God.  Op- 
posite the  temple  of  Phtha,  at  Memphis,  was  a  magnificent 
edifice  where  he  was  kept  when  publicly  exhibited.  The 
walls  w,ere  richly  sculptured,  and  the  roof  su|)ported  by 
colossal  statues.  He  was  generally  seen  only  through  the 
windows,  but  on  some  occasions  he  was  led  out  into  the 
vestibule,  where  his  sacred  mother  was  fed.  He  had  ex- 
tensive parks  for  exercise,  and  the  most  beautiful  cows  for 
companions.  His  food  was  carefully  regulated,  and  he 
drank  from  a  clear  fountain,  because  the  water  of  the  Nile 
was  deemed  too  fattening.  He  had  access  to  two  stables. 
If  he  entered  one  it  was  a  good  omen  ;  if  the  other,  it  was 
an  evil  sign.  If  he  ate  readily,  it  was  deemed  fortunate 
for  him  who  offered  the  food ;  but  if  he  rejected  it,  they 
foreboded  calamity.  Those  who  wished  to  consult  his 
oracle,  deposited  a  coin  on  his  altar,  with  certain  ceremo- 
nies ;  and  the  first  exclamation  they  heard  afterward  was 
deemed  a  voice  from  heaven  for  their  guidance.  They 
paid  particular  attention  to  the  exclamations  of  little  eliil- 

II* 


178  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

dren,  especially  if  they  were  playing  within  the  precincts  of 
temples.  It  was  suj)posed  that  children  who  smelled  the 
breath  of  Apis  received  the  gift  of  prophecy  in  a  pre-en:ii- 
neiit  degree.  At  the  annual  rising  of  the  Nile,  a  festival 
was  held  in  commemoration  of  his  birth.  It  continued 
seven  days,  and  brought  to  Memphis  a  vast  concourse  of 
spectators.  He  was  led  through  the  city  by  priests  in 
solemn  procession,  with  troops  of  children  singing  hymns 
before  him  ;  and  as  he  passed,  all  the  people  came  out  to 
welcome  him.  A  golden  shell  was  thrown  into  the  Nile, 
and  crocodiles  were  said  to  be  tame  while  the  feast  lasted  ; 
probably  because  they  received  so  much  food.  Notwith- 
standing this  extreme  veneration.  Apis  was  not  allowed  to 
survive  twenty-five  years.  If  he  lived  till  that  age,  the 
priests  drowned  him  in  a  fountain,  and  all  the  people 
mourned  till  a  new  Apis  was  found.  This  limitation  of 
his  existence  is  supposed  to  have  reference  to  some  period 
in  their  astronomical  calculations.  He  was  embalmed,  and 
great  sums  were  lavished  on  his  funeral.  In  1816,  Belzoni 
discovered,  among  tombs  excavated  in  the  mountains  near 
Thebes,  a  huge  sarcophagus  of  purest  oriental  alabaster, 
transparent  and  sonorous,  covered  with  beautiful  sculp- 
tured ornaments  and  hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  within  and 
without.     It  contained  the  embalmed  body  of  a  bull. 

When  Apis  was  dead,  the  priests  went  in  search  of  an 
animal  to  succeed  him.  The  Sacred  Books  required  that 
he  should  be  black,  with  a  white  triangle  on  his  forehead, 
a  white  crescent  on  his  right  side,  and  a  bunch  like  a 
beetle  under  his  tongue.  When  such  a  calf  was  found,  it 
was  said  the  cow  conceived  him  by  a  ray  from  the  sun. 
He  was  fed  four  months  on  milk,  in  a  building  facing  the 
rising  sun.  At  the  end  of  the  new  moon,  he  was  carried 
to  Heliopolis  in  a  richly  gilded  ship.  There  he  was  fed 
by  women  forty  days.  Thence  he  was  conveyed  with 
much  pomp  to  his  stately  edifice  at  Memphis.  The  man 
from  whose  herd  he  was  selected  was  deemed  the  most 
fortunate  of  mortals. 

When  Cambyses  conquered  l^^gypt,  having  the  Persian 


EGYPT  179 

liorror  of  idols,  he  defaced  the  statues  of  the  gods,  and 
stabbed  Apis  with  his  sword.  -Ochus,  one  of  liis  succes- 
sors, served  up  Apis  at  a  banquet,  and  put  an  Ass  in  the 
temple  in  his  stead ;  for  which  outrage  an  Egyptian  as- 
sassinated him  and  threw  his  body  to  the  cats.  Viewed 
calmly  at  this  distance  of  time,  the  spirit  manifested  by  one 
seems  scarcely  more  commendable  than  that  of  the  other. 

A  variety  of  animals  were  venerated  only  in  particular 
districts,  Thebans  abstained  from  sheep,  because  the  ram 
was  an  emblem  of  their  god  Amun.  They  never  put  one 
to  death,  except  on  the  annual  festival  of  that  deit\-,  when 
they  sacrificed  a  ram  with  many  ceremonies,  and  placed 
the  skin  upon  his  image.  At  Mendes,  the  presiding  deity 
was  Kham,  God  of  Generation,  who  was  represented  with 
the  head  of  a  she-goat,  and  the  legs  of  a  male ;  therefore 
goats  were  sacred  in  that  region.  The  god  Anubis  was 
represented  with  a  dog's  head.  Wherever  his  worship 
prevailed,  the  dog  was  sacred,  and  they  shaved  their  heads 
in  token  of  mourning  when  one  died.  In  some  places, 
apes  and  monkeys  were  sacred,  being  connected  with  the 
history  of  the  god  Thoth.  At  Heliopolis,  they  detested 
the  crocodile  and  assigned  it  to  Typho,  the  Destroyer ;  but 
in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Moeris  they  worshipped  the  ugly 
ci^eature.  They  kept  a  crocodile  in  a  tank  at  the  temple, 
and  fed  it  with  portions  of  the  sacrifices.  The  priests, 
having  rendered  it  perfectly  tame  by  kind  treatment, 
adorned  it  with  bracelets  of  gold  and  necklaces  of  artifi- 
cial gems.  Worshippers  brought  offerings  of  bread  and 
wine.  In  those  districts  they  deemed  it  a  mark  of  favour 
from  the  deity  to  be  devoured  by  these  monsters.  A  story 
is  recorded  of  a  woman  who  brought  up  a  young  crocodile, 
and  her  countr3-men  considered  her  the  nurse  of  a  divinity. 
Her  little  son  played  fearlessly  with  the  beast,  but  when  it 
grew  large  it  devoured  the  boy.  His  mother  exulted,  con- 
sidering his  fate  peculiarly  blest  in  being  thus  incorporated 
with  tlie  household  god.  In  some  places  small  serpents 
were  kept  in  the  temples,  fed  on  honey  and  flour.  It  was 
considered  a  mark  of  divine  favour  to  be  bitten  by  any 


180  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  this  species.  At  Bubastis  they  Avoi\shii)ped  a  goddess 
represented  with  the  head  of  a  cat;  and  in  that  region  cats 
were  sacred.  When  one  of  them  died,  they  sliaved  their 
eye-brows  in  sign  of  mourning.  If  a  person  killed  one, 
even  accidental!}^,  a  mob  gathered  round  him  and  tore  him 
to  pieces  without  trial.  When  they  went  to  foreign  wars, 
they  embalmed  dogs  and  cats  that  died  on  the  way,  and 
brought  them  home  for  honourable  burial.  Belzoni  found 
entire  tombs  filled  with  nothing  but  embalmed  cats,  care- 
fully folded  in  red  and  white  linen,  the  head  covered  by  a 
mask  representing  its  face. 

Each  district  held  to  its  own  worship  with  the  bigotry 
that  everywhere  characterizes  disputes  about  religious  faith. 
A  civil  war  arose  between  two  districts,  because  one  ate 
the  fish  that  the  other  worshipped.  They  did  each  other 
much  mischief,  and  were  severely  punished  by  the  Romans. 
The  inhabitants  of  Ombos  attacked  those  of  Tentyris, 
because  they  had  killed  a  crocodile ;  and  the  war  was  car- 
ried on  with  all  the  fury  of  sectarian  zeal,  Joseph  us  de- 
clares that  as  early  as  the  time  when  Abraham  was  in 
Egypt  "  they  despised  one  another's  sacred  and  accustomed 
rites,  and  were  very  angry  one  with  another  on  that 
account."  W^hat  theological  tenets  among  the  priests  of 
different  deities  were  at  stake  in  these  contentions  cannot 
now  be  traced ;  but  the  great  resemblance  existing  between 
their  religion  and  that  of  Ilindostan  naturally  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  similar  causes  were  at  work  to  produce 
similar  effects.  Doubtless  they  had  their  formalists  and 
spiritualists,  their  atheists  and  fanatics.  It  is  recorded  that 
the  i^eople  of  Thebais  paid  divine  honours  to  nothing  in 
mortal  form,  but  adored  only  Cneph.  Plutarch  says  the 
inhabitants  of  that  region,  on  account  of  their  more  spirit- 
ual worship  of  One  Invisible  God,  "without  beginning  or 
end,"  were  excused  from  paying  the  public  taxes  levied  on 
other  Egyptians  for  maintenance  of  the  sacred  animals. 
It  n:ay  readily  be  conjectured  that  such  sects,  like  the 
Vcdantins  of  Ilindostan,  regarded  with  pity  those  minds 
which   had  need  of  images  and  external  symbols.     But 


EGYPT.  181 

elevated  ideas  of  God  and  the  soul  were  supposed  to  be 
above  the  comprehension  of  the  populace,  and  incom- 
patible with  their  employments.  The  priests,  who  were 
the  only  educated  class,  feared  that  if  such  knowledge  were 
revealed  to  them,  they  would  pervert  it  by  all  sorts  of 
ignorant  misconceptions.  Therefore,  they  were  left  to  obey 
laws  without  knowing  why  they  were  ordained,  and  to  ob- 
serve the  ritual  of  religion  without  comprehending  its 
import. 

Egyptians  were  conservative  in  the  extreme.  They  had 
the  greatest  possible  objection  to  introducing  foreign  cus- 
toms or  opinions,  or  innovations  of  any  kind.  But  they 
could  not  resist  that  law  of  our  nature  which  has  written 
decay,  death,  and  resurrection,  on  all  material  things  and 
all  forms  of  opinion.  The  primitive  faith  of  every  people 
has  always  a  tendency  to  degenerate  into  unmeaning  forms ; 
and  the  progress  of  corruption  must  be  greatly  accelerated 
where  religious  ideas,  studiously  hidden  from  the  people, 
become  a  monopoly  of  power  in  the  hands  of  a  privileged 
class.  In  the  beginning,  the  priestly  style  of  living  was 
very  simple,  but  what  we  afterward  hear  of  their  grand 
establishments  indicates  a  change.  During  the  last  daj's, 
when  Egypt  became  a  province  of  Rome,  we  have  means 
of  knowing  that  many  abuses  crept  in.  Old  mystical  ideas 
were  almost  buried  under  a  mass  of  grotesque  fancies.  The 
influence  of  the  priests  declined.  They  still  had  charge  of 
the  national  records,  the  education  of  youth,  and  the  super- 
intendence of  weights  and  measures;  but  they  no  longer 
swayed  the  councils  of  government,  or  presided  in  courts 
of  justice.  Their  servility  to  wealth  and  power  is  implied 
by  the  fact  that  when  Alexander  the  Great  consulted  the 
oracle  at  Thebes,  his  ambitious  wishes  were  gratified  by 
hearing  himself  declared  the  son  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  In 
such  a  state  of  things,  the  character  of  the  deities  became 
degraded,  and  the  animals  regarded  as  deities  were  some- 
times treated  with  contempt.  If  prayers  and  sacrifices 
proved  unavailing  to  counteract  drought,  famine,  or  epi- 
demics, people  reproached  the  gods,  and  insulted  their 
Vol.  I.— 1G 


182  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

imao:es.  Priests  conducted  the  sacred  animals  to  dark 
places,  where  they  terrified  them  with  threats,  and  some- 
times even  put  them  to  death,  if  the  evils  continued.  Still 
people  clung  to  the  outward  ritual  hallowed  by  so  many 
ages  of  observance.  The  temples  continued  to  swarm  with 
animals,  and  images  of  animals,  such  as  silver  and  brazen 
serpents,  and  gilded  or  golden  calves.  If  a  foreigner  asked 
the  meaning  of  their  religious  customs,  the  answer  depended 
upon  whether  he  addressed  the  initiated  or  the  uninitiated  ; 
and  in  either  case  it  was  likely  to  be  coloured  by  sectional 
prejudice.  To  one  whose  education  did  not  enable  him  to 
sympathize  with  the  blind  reverence  of  the  populace,  and 
who  had  no  means  of  knowing  that  more  spiritual  minds 
attached  mystical  significance  to  their  strange  symbols,  the 
worship  of  Egypt  must  have  seemed  absurd  in  the  extreme. 
No  wonder  it  became  a  mark  for  the  arrows  of  Grecian  and 
Roman  satire.  It  was  common  in  Rome  to  call  a  foolish, 
pompous  fellow  "an  Eg_yptian  temple,"  which  had  such  a 
magnificent  exterior,  and  a  monkey  for  the  deity  within. 
Thus  every  growth  passes  away,  and  dreary  looks  the 
stubble  when  the  grain  is  gone. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  their  faith  was  once 
a  solemn  reality  to  millions  of  men,  whose  minds  it  swayed 
for  ages.  Powerful  indeed  must  have  been  the  feeling, 
which  prompted  men  to  expend  so  much  wealth,  labour, 
and  ingenuity,  in  the  service  of  their  gods.  The  effect  pro- 
duced by  their  sublime  temples  on  those  sincerely  under 
the  influence  of  their  national  belief,  may  be  partly  con- 
jectured from  the  wonder  and  reverence  their  ruins  still 
inspire  in  men  of  other  religions  and  a  distant  age.  Those 
who  see  drawings,  or  fragmentary  specimens  in  museums, 
can  form  no  idea  of  the  general  etTect  of  their  architecture. 
Deities  wearing  the  heads  of  rams,  hawks,  and  cows,  seem 
uncouth  and  ridiculous  to  us,  who  attach  no  meaning  to 
tlie  emblems.  There  is  moreover  a  want  of  perspective  in 
Egyptian  art,  a  monotonous  straightness  in  tlie  position  of 
the  figures,  and  a  barbai'ous  taste  in  their  uid)armonized 
masses  of  colour.     Sucli  was  their  respect  for  pivscribed 


KGYPT.  183 

rules,  tliat  tiiiio  ami  intercourse  witli  otlu^r  nations  protlnced 
little  cluino-e  in  these  jiarticulars.  Plato,  in  his  Republic, 
introduces  the  following  remark  in  a  dialogue:  "The  plan 
\vc  have  been  laying  down  for  youth  was  known  long  ago 
to  the  Egyptians ;  that  nothing  but  beautiful  forms  and  fine 
music  should  be  permitted  to  enter  into  the  assemblies  of 
young  people.  Having  settled  what  those  forms  and  that 
music  should  be,  they  exhibited  them  in  their  temples; 
nor  was  it  lawful,  either  in  painting,  statuary,  or  any 
branches  of  music,  to  make  any  alteration,  or  invent  any 
forms  different  from  what  were  established.  Upon  ex- 
amination, therefore,  you  will  find  that  the  pictures  and 
statues  made  ten  thousand  3'ears  ago,  are  in  no  one  par- 
ticular better  or  worse  than  what  they  now  make." 

But  after  all  these  deductions,  the  Egyptian  ruins  are 
not  only  sublime  and  impressive,  but  often  extremely 
beautiful.  Many  of  the  sculptured  animals  are  spirited, 
and  all  travellers  agree  that  the  countenances  of  gods  and 
mortals  are  remarkable  for  simplicity,  sweetness,  and 
serenity  of  expression.  Harriet  Martineau  says:  "I  was 
never  tired  of  trying  to  imprint  on  my  memory  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  old  Egyptian  face ;  the  handsome  arched 
nose,  with  its  delicate  nostril ;  the  well-opened,  though 
long  eye]  the  placid,  innocent  mouth,  and  the  smooth- 
rounded,  amiable  chin.  Innocence  is  the  prevailing 
expression,  and  sternness  is  absent.  Thus  the  stiffest 
figures  and  the  most  monotonous  gestures  convey  only  an 
impression  of  dispassionateness  and  benevolence.  The 
dignity  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  is  beyond  all  description, 
fi'om  this  union  of  fixidity  and  benevolence.  If  the  traveller 
be  blest  with  the  clear  eye  and  fresh  mind,  and  be  also  en- 
riched by  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  workings  of 
the  human  intellect  in  its  various  circumstances,  he  cannot 
but  be  impressed,  and  he  may  be  startled  by  the  evidence 
before  him  of  the  elevation  and  beauty  of  the  first  concep- 
tions formed  by  men  of  the  Beings  of  the  unseen  world." 

The  architecture  of  Egypt  greatly  resembles  that  of 
Hindostan.     There  are  the  same  gigantic  proportions,  the 


184  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

same  flat  roofs  of  ponderous  stone,  supported  bj  the  same 
massive  columns ;  the  same  herculean  labour  in  the  ex- 
cavation of  tombs  and  temples  through  the  solid  rock  of 
everlasting  hills,  the  same  gloomy  cavernous  effect  of  the 
interior,  the  same  colossal  images,  the  same  infinity  of 
sculptured  figures  everywhere,  painted  in  the  same  bright 
colours. 

The  ruins  of  Egyptian  Thebes  are  well  known  as  the 
most  wonderful  in  the  world.  Its  date  ascends  beyond 
the  records  of  history.  Homer  celebrates  it  as  "  the  city 
with  a  hundred  gates;"  and  he  wrote  nearly  a  thousand 
years  before  Christ.  Existing  monuments  prove  that  it 
must  have  been  in  full  glory  more  than  three  thousand 
years  ago.  Belzoni  says:  "The  most  sublime  ideas  that 
can  be  formed  from  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  our 
present  architecture  would  give  a  very  incorrect  picture  of 
these  ruins.  It  appeared  to  me  like  entering  a  city  of 
giants,  who,  after  a  long  conflict,  were  all  destroyed,  leav- 
ing the  ruins  of  their  various  temples  as  the  only  proofs 
of  their  former  existence."  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
structures  is  now  universally  known  under  the  name 
of  El  Karnac.  It  faces  the  Nile,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  an  avenue  a  mile  long,  with  gigantic  sphinxes 
on  each  side  all  the  way.  Diodorus  describes  the  walls 
as  twenty-four  feet  thick,  and  a  mile  and  a  half  in  cir- 
cumference. They  have  twelve  pi'incipal  entrances,  each 
composed  of  several  towers  and  colossal  gatewaj's,  beside 
other  buildings  attached  to  them,  in  themselves  larger  than 
most  other  temples.  On  each  side  of  many  of  the  towers 
are  colossal  statues,  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high.  The 
large  building,  supposed  to  have  been  the  royal  palace, 
was  built  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago,  by  Ilamses 
the  Great,  commonly  called  Sesostris.  It  is  entered 
through  an  open  colonnade,  and  up  an  ascent  of  twenty- 
seven  steps.  These  lead  into  a  covered  hall,  so  spacious 
that  a  large  European  church  might  stand  within  it.  The 
ceiling,  of  unhewn  blocks  of  stone,  is  sustained  by  one 
hundred  and  thirt3^-four  columns,  sixty-five  feet  high,  and 


EGYPT.  185 

thirty  in  circumference.  The  whole  hal],  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, is  covered  with  sculptures  relating  to  religious  wor- 
ship. In  several  places  an  Ark  is  represented,  as  carried 
on  poles,  resting  on  the  shoulders  of  priests,  and  followed 
by  a  procession  of  people.  There  are  likewise  branciied 
candlesticks,  tables  with  loaves  of  bread,  and  cherubim 
with  extended  wings.  The  number  of  these  sculptures  is 
so  great  that  no  one  has  been  able  to  count  them,  much 
less  to  copy  them.  Another  colonnade  beyond  leads  to  a 
succession  of  apartments  covered  with  sculpture  repre- 
senting domestic  scenes,  mixed  with  religious  ceremonies. 
All  these  are  painted  in  vivid  colours,  which  still  retain 
their  brilliancy.  The  ceiling  of  the  central  room  is  painted 
blue,  studded  with  constellations  of  stars.  Denon  says : 
"One  is  fatigued  with  writing,  one  is  fatigued  with  read- 
ing, one  is  stunned  with  the  thought  of  such  a  conception. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  believe  in  so  much  magnificence 
even  after  having  seen  it."  The  ancient  existence  of 
libraries  is  proved  by  these  ruins.  Champollion  found  on 
a  doorway  representations  of  Thoth  and  a  feminine  deity, 
who  presided  over  arts,  science,  and  literature.  Above 
their  heads  were,  "Lord  of  the  Library,"  and  "Lady  of 
Letters,"  carved  in  hieroglyphics.  Fragments  from  the 
History  of  the  Greek  Hecataeus  inform  us  that  he  saw 
this  grand  edifice  more  than  five  hundred  years  before 
Christ.  He  says  it  then  contained  a  library  of  Sacred 
Books,  over  the  entrance  of  which  was  inscribed,  "The 
Eemedy  for  the  Soul."  Near  the  palace  is  the  great 
Temple  of  Karnac,  one  of  the  sublimest  specimens  of 
Egyptian  architecture.  It  has  a  lofty  magnificent  gate- 
way, more  than  sixty-two  feet  high,  of  richly  sculptured 
sandstone.  This  leads  to  a  gallery  of  colossal  rams,  which 
indicate  that  the  precincts  were  sacred  to  Amun,  com- 
monly called  Jupiter  Ammon.  The  grandeur  of  the  inte- 
rior corresponds  to  the  external  decorations.  Ileeren 
sa^^s:  "This  temple  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  most 
ancient  that  now  exist  in  Egypt,  yet  both  this  and  the 
palace  are  built  of  materials  taken  from  edifices  more 
Vol.  I.— 1G* 


186  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ancient  still."  Every  year  tlie  statue  of  Amun  was  car- 
ried in  solemn  procession  into  Libya,  over  a  space  of  nine 
or  ten  miles.  Almost  the  entire  road  was  lined  with 
temples,  colossal  statues,  and  long  avenues  of  gigantic 
sphinxes.  Eichardson  says:  "It  is  impossible  to  conceive 
anything  more  impressive  than  tlic  view  wliich  must 
have  burst  upon  the  sight  of  the  enraptured  votaries, 
when,  at  the  close  of  the  solemnity  of  bringing  back  their 
god,  they  entered  the  grand  Temple  of  Karnac  to  replace 
liiin  in  his  shrine,  with  harps  and  cymbals,  and  songs  of 
rejoicing." 

About  two  miles  from  El  Karnac  is  the  great  Temple  of 
Luxor,  supposed  to  have  been  built  two  centuries  earlier. 
Here  likewise  deities  are  represented  surmounted  by  the 
inscriptions,  "Lord  of  the  Divine  Writings,"  and  "Lad}^ 
of  Letters."  Belzoni,  describing  this  place,  says :  "  The 
avenue  of  sphinxes  leading  to  the  great  temple  inspires  the 
visitor  with  devotion,  and  their  enormous  size  strikes  him 
with  wonder.  Each  side  of  the  gate  leading  to  the  inner 
courts  are  seated  immense  colossal  figures,  as  if  guarding 
the  entrance  of  the  holy  ground.  Farther  on  is  the  mag- 
nificent temple  dedicated  to  the  Great  God  of  Creation,  I 
entered  it  alone.  The  sun  was  rising,  and  long  shadows 
from  groups  of  columns  extended  over  the  ruins,  while 
rays  of  light  struck  on  the  masses  in  various  directions, 
forming  views  that  baffle  all  description.  How  can  I 
describe  my  sensations !  I  seemed  alone  in  the  midst  of 
all  that  is  most  sacred  in  the  world.  A  forest  of  enormous 
columns  adorned  all  round,  from  top  to  bottom,  with  beau- 
tiful figures,  and  various  ornaments;  the  graceful  shape  of 
tlie  Lotus,  which  forms  their  capitals;  the  gates,  walls, 
pedestals,  everywhere  adorned  with  symbolical  figures, 
rcpi-esenling  battles,  processions,  feasts,  offerings,  and 
sacrifices,  all  rrlating  no  doubt  to  the  ancient  history  of 
the  country  ;  the  sanctuary  formed  of  fine  red  granite,  with 
vari(Kis  obelisks  standing  before  it,  proclaiming  to  the  dis- 
tant passenger,  'Here  is  the  seat  of  holiness;'  the  high 
portals  seen  from  afar  thn^ugh  the  o[)cnings  to  this  vast 


EGYPT.  187 

labyrinth  of  edifices;  the  various  groups  of  ruins  of  other 
temples  within  sight;  all  these  had  such  an  effect  upon  my 
soul,  as  to  separate  me  in  imagination  from  the  rest  of 
mortals,  exalt  me  on  high  over  all,  and  cause  me  to  forget 
the  trifles  and  follies  of  life.  My  mind  was  impressed  with 
such  solemnity  that  for  some  time  I  was  unconscious 
whether  I  was  on  terrestrial  ground,  or  on  some  other 
planet." 

In  the  vicinity  of  Thebes  are  wonderful  excavations  in 
the  granite  of  mountains,  similar  to  those  described  at 
Ellora  and  Elephanta,  in  Ilindostan,  Some  are  very  ex- 
tensive, with  winding  stairs  leading  to  small  apartments  in 
all  directions.  Some  have  deep  shafts  or  wells,  and  at  the 
bottom  of  the  wells  passages  to  smaller  apartments,  with 
endless  winding  recesses.  In  these  cavernous  depths  are  a 
multitude  of  colossal  statues  of  all  the  gods.  The  various 
halls  and  chambers  are  covered  with  hieroglyphic  writing 
and  painted  sculptures,  the  colours  of  which  are  still  fresh 
and  glowing.  Here  Belzoni  discovered  the  alabaster  sar- 
cophagus. Speaking  of  the  apartment  where  it  was  found, 
Harriet  Martineau  says :  "We  enjoj^ed  seeing  the  whole 
lighted  up  by  a  fire  of  straw.  I  shall  never  forget  that 
gorgeous  chamber  in  this  palace  of  death.  The  rich  colours 
on  the  walls  were  brought  out  by  the  flame  ;  and  the  won- 
derful ceiling,  all  starred  with  emblems,  and  peopled  with 
countless  yellow  figures,  was  like  nothing  earthly."  One 
priestly  tomb  in  these  excavations  occupies  an  acre  and  a 
quarter  of  the  heart  of  the  rock.  Here  is  the  sepulchre  of 
the  Pharaoh  who  pursued  the  Hebrews  into  the  Bed  Sea. 
"  Five  lines  of  tribute-bearers  show  how  extensive  was  his 
dominion.  They  are  of  various  costumes  and  complexions, 
bringing  ivory,  apes,  leopards,  gold,  and  among  other 
ofterings  a  bear ;"  as  if  the  extreme  North  also  acknowledged 
his  power.  The  faces  of  the  Pharaohs  on  these  monuments 
are  likenesses.  This  carries  back  the  art  of  portrait-sculp- 
ture into  high  antiquity'. 

Memphis,  much  farther  down  the  Nile,  was  founded  by 
the  first  king  Menes,  who,  all  agree,  must  have  lived  between 


188  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

four  and  five  thousand  years  ago;  and  some  place  him 
much  earlier.  Here  was  a  magnificent  temple  to  Phtha, 
which  it  took  sevei'al  generations  of  kings  to  complete. 
Many  titles  of  this  once  famous  city  are  found  among  the 
hieroglyphics;  such  as,  "The  Abode  of  Good,"  "Land 
of  the  Pyramid,"  "The  Habitation  of  Pthah."  Here 
Abraham  was  a  guest,  and  Sarai,  his  beautiful  wife,  was 
lodged  in  the  palace  of  the  king.  Here  Joseph  rode 
through  the  streets  in  the  royal  chariot,  clothed  "  with  fine 
linen,  and  a  chain  of  gold  about  his  neck."  The  fine  linen 
and  the  wrought  gold  show  that  even  then  Memphis  was 
old  in  civilization.  Here  Moses  was  educated  in  the  house- 
hold of  Pharaoh,  and  became  "  learned  in  all  the  wisdom 
of  the  Egyptians."  There  are  now  scarcely  any  remains 
of  this  mighty  city ;  but  Abdallatif,  a  traveller  from  Bag- 
dad, thus  describes  it,  as  he  saw  it  about  seven  hundred 
years  ago :  "  The  ruins  occupy  a  space  which  is  half  a 
day's  journey  every  way.  As  for  the  idols  that  are  found 
among  them,  whether  one  considers  their  number,  or  their 
prodigious  magnitude,  it  is  a  thing  beyond  all  description, 
and  of  which  no  idea  can  be  conveyed.  But  there  is  a 
thing  yet  more  worthy  of  admiration ;  and  that  is  the  pre- 
cision of  their  forms,  the  justness  of  their  proportions,  and 
their  resemblance  to  nature."  Speaking  of  the  famous 
pyramids  near  the  city,  he  says  :  "  The  stones  are  covered 
with  writing-,  the  import  of  which  is  at  this  day  unknown. 
More  than  ten  thousand  pages  of  paper  would  be  filled,  if 
only  the  inscriptions  seen  on  these  two  pyramids  were 
copied." 

It  is  now  known  that  these  huge  monuments  have  stood 
more  than  four  thousand  years.  It  is  proved  to  a  certainty, 
from  the  hicroglyi)hics,  that  they  were  built,  at  the  least 
calculation,  three  hundred  years  before  Abraham  was  born, 
and  seven  or  eight  hundred  years  before  the  time  of  Moses. 
In  1837  the  name  of  the  king  who  built  the  Great  Pyramid 
was  found  written  on  the  rough  stones.  He  lived  near  the 
time  of  Menes,  and  is  the  Cheops  to  whom  Herodotus  attri- 
butes the  construction  of  this  vast  })ilc.     In  his  time,  the 


EGYPT.  189 

outside  was  covered  with  writing,  wliicli  Abdallatif  says  he 
saw  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century  after  our  era.  Unfortu- 
nately, before  the  attention  of  European  scholars  was  drawn 
toward  Memphis,  the  marble  casing  of  the  pyramids  was 
destroyed,  and  the  writing  lost.  But  we  cannot  lose  pos- 
session of  the  fact  that  in  those  very  remote  times  Egyp- 
tians must  have  had  wonderful  machinery,  graving  tools, 
an  alphabet,  and  a  knowledge  of  writing.  Among  the 
multitude  of  tombs  in  tliis  vicinity  are  some  coeval  with 
the  pyramids.  A  liieroglyphic  record  in  one  of  them  de- 
clares that  it  was  built  for  "  Eimei,  great  priest  of  the  habi- 
tation of  king  Shoophoo"  (called  Cheops  by  the  Greeks). 
Inkstands  and  reed-pens  are  common  among  the  emblems 
here.  A  papyrus  is  now  in  Europe,  of  the  date  of  Shoo- 
phoo ;  which  proves  alphabetic  signs,  and  written  docu- 
ments, and  that  kind  of  paper  to  have  been  in  use  when 
the  Great  Pyramid  was  built ;  nearly  a  thousand  j^ears 
before  Moses  was  born. 

Herodotus  declares  the  pja-amids  were  built  for  sepul- 
chres;  and  the  learned  now  agree  in  opinion  that  for  a 
long  series  of  years  every  Egyptian  monarch  caused  one 
of  these  royal  tombs  to  be  built  for  himself  The  sarco- 
phagi found  in  them  proves  that  they  were  used  for  burial- 
places  ;  but  the  immense  size  of  some  of  them,  the  various 
chambers,  the  shafts  or  wells,  and  the  deep  subterranean 
passages,  have  led  to  various  conjectures  concerning  the 
possibility  of  their  being  likewise  used  for  other  purposes. 
Some  have  supposed  that  great  religious  Mysteries  were 
celebrated  there.  Mr.  Wilford,  during  his  residence  in 
Hindostan,  described  the  Great  Pyramid  to  several  learned 
Bramins.  He  says :  "  They  at  once  declared  it  to  have 
been  a  temple.  One  of  them  asked  if  it  had  not  a  com- 
munication under  ground  with  the  river  Nile.  When  I 
mentioned  that  such  a  passage  was  said  to  have  existed,  and 
that  a  well  was  at  this  day  to  be  seen,  the^^  unanimously 
agreed  that  it  was  a  place  appropriated  to  the  woi'ship  of 
Padma  Devi,  and  that  on  certain  festivals  her  priests  used 
to  fill  the  trousfh  with  sacred  water  and  lotus-blossoms." 


190  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  it  was  a  custom  in  Egypt 
for  families,  acoompanied  by  priests,  to  visit  the  tombs  of 
reLatives  at  stated  seasons,  and  oifer  obkations  and  prayers 
for  the  departed,  Perhaps  something  of  this  kind  might 
have  been  done  on  a  scale  of  exceeding  grandeur  in  the 
pyramids,  for  the  royal  ones  whose  bodies  rested  there. 

On  the  island  of  Elephantina,  in  the  Nile,  there  is  a  great 
accumulation  of  columns,  obelisks,  portals,  and  two  small 
temples,  covered  within  and  without  with  hieroglyphics, 
executed  in  a  style  of  great  excellence.  Denon  supposes 
these  to  belong  to  the  earliest  ages  of  Egypt  of  which  any 
trace  remains.  At  Edfu,  on  the  Nile,  are  also  remarkable 
structures  of  great  antiquity  ;  but  the  temples  in  these  and 
in  other  places  are  now  discovered  to  be  partly  built  of  the 
ruins  of  other  temples  more  ancient  still. 

At  Dendera  are  the  remains  of  large  temples,  compara- 
tively modern.  They  were  first  discovered  by  Bonaparte's 
arm}',  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  nearly  two 
thousand  years  ago.  They  are  distinguished  for  lavishness 
of  ornament,  extraordinary  beauty  of  execution,  and  bril- 
liancy of  colouring.  French  writers  say:  "All  that  you 
see  here,  from  the  colossal  statues  of  Isis  to  the  smallest 
hieroglyphic,  appears  to  have  come  from  fairydand."  The 
soldiers  declared  with  one  voice  that  this  sight  alone  was 
enough  to  indemnify  them  for  all  the  fatigues  of  their 
campaign.  On  the  ceiling  of  the  principal  temple  was 
painted  a  zodiac,  which  attracted  great  attention  among  the 
astronomers  of  Europe.  This  and  other  Egyptian  zodiacs 
gave  rise  to  much  controversy  concerning  the  astronomical 
])roof  of  antiquity  they  conveyed.  In  1822  the  police  of 
Paris  suppressed  some  Essays,  which  started  theories  at 
vai-iance  with  the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
It  is  now  generally  decided  by  the  learned  that  none  of 
these  zodiacs  are  much  older  than  the  Christian  era. 

Caj)tain  Jiurr,  of  the  British  army,  who  went  to  Egypt 
with  East  India  troo[)s,  was  struck  with  the  resemblance  in 
costume  and  the  manners  represented,  between  the  sculp- 
tures at  Dendera  and  those  he  had  seen  in  llindostan.     Ilo 


EGYPT.  191 

came  to  the  conclusion  tluit  "a  closer  connection  must 
have  formerly  existed  among  the  nations  of  the  E;ist, 
wlien  they  were  yet  united  by  the  same  worship."  The 
Hindoo  soldiers  who  accompanied  him  were  filled  with  awe 
and  amazement.  TJjey  believed  themselves  to  be  in  the 
presence  of  tlieir  own  ancient  deities,  and  were  indignant 
at  the  neglect  into  which  their  worship  iiad  lallen.  They 
exclaimed:  "Surely  Hindoos  must  have  lived  in  tliis 
country!"  Some  thought  the  wonderful  edifice  might 
have  been  built  by  Kakshasas,  or  Evil  Spirits;  that  being 
the  usual  account  given  of  Buddhist  temples  by  the  Bra- 
mi  ns 

The  ancient  Egyptian  temples  were  always  of  solid  mas- 
sive stone,  without  cement,  and  enclosed  by  thick  walls. 
In  time  of  war  they  were  used  as  fortifications,  and  places 
of  i-efuge  for  the  inhabitants.  Vestiges  of  tanks,  or  ponds, 
for  ablution,  are  generally  found  near  them,  and  many  of 
them  have  deep  sockets,  apparently  used  for  flags  on  festi- 
val occasions.  The  entrance  was  a  porch  in  form  of  a 
truncated  pyramid,  very  grand  and  massive.  Through 
this  they  passed  into  an  o[)en  court  surrounded  with  col- 
umns, with  partition  walls  about  half  of  their  height. 
This  outer  court  was  probably  intended  for  the  people, 
where  they  might  see  the  ceremonies  and  processions  from 
a  certain  distance.  Next  to  this  came  a  portico,  supported 
by  rows  of  immense  pillars.  Through  this  they  passed 
into  vast  saloons,  three  or  four  in  succession,  supposed  to 
be  intended  for  the  religious  processions  and  ceremonies 
which  are  pictured  on  the  walls.  At  the  extremity  was  a 
niche  of  granite  or  porphyry.  This  was  the  sanctuary, 
approached  by  none  but  the  priests.  Sometimes  it  con- 
tained the  statue  of  the  deity  to  whom  the  temple  was 
dedicated  ;  sometimes  an  im;tge  of  the  Bull,  Apis,  or  some 
other  sacred  animal ;  sometimes  the  Oracle  Ship  of  Amun, 
in  its  shrine.  In  the  great  temples  this  Sacred  Ship  was 
often  very  magnificent.  Sesostris  presented  one  to  the 
temple  of  Amun  at  Thebes,  made  of  cedar,  the  inside 
lined    with    silver,   and    the    outside    covered    with    gold. 


192  PROGRESS   OP   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Sometimes  the  sanctuary  contained  a  shrine  or  Ark,  sur- 
mounted by  a  small  image  overshadowed  with  wings , 
sometimes  the  wings  of  Isis,  sometimes  of  the  Goddess  of 
Truth,  sometimes  of  the  sacred  bird  Ibis,  On  each  side 
of  the  saloons  were  corridors,  which  led  into  apartments 
where  the  priests  lived.  The  walls,  columns,  and  ceilings, 
were  covered  with  sculpture.  The  capitals  of  the  pillars 
were  generally  composed  of  native  plants  ;  Lotus  leaves, 
and  Palm  branches,  arranged  in  endless  variety.  The 
tigures  on  the  walls  were  usually  in  bold  relief,  represent- 
ing deities  and  their  worshippers  engaged  in  some  religious 
cerem.ony.  Near  them  were  long  explanatory  inscriptions 
in  hieroglyphics.  All  these  sculptures  were  painted  yellow, 
red,  blue,  green,  and  white.  The  colour  of  each  deity,  and 
of  every  other  object,  was  established  by  rules,  which  ad- 
mitted of  no  deviation.  Denon  says  :  "  An  Egyptian  tem- 
ple is,  as  it  were,  an  open  book,  where  science  unfolds, 
where  morality  teaches,  where  the  useful  arts  are  set 
forth.  Everything  seems  to  speak  ;  all  seems  animated, 
and  all  in  the  same  spirit.  The  doorposts,  the  most  secret 
corners,  give  a  lesson,  or  a  rule  ;  and  the  whole  is  in  most 
Avonderful  harmony." 

The  Oracle  Ship  in  its  shrine,  or  the  Ark  overshadowed 
with  wings,  occur  very  frequently  in  all  the  sculptured 
re))resentations  of  religious  ceremonies.  Sometimes  the 
king  is  kneeling  before  it  at  his  devotions  ;  sometimes  he 
is  coming  toward  it  with  an  offering  of  frankincense.  More 
fre([uently  the  priests  carry  it  resting  on  long  poles,  sup- 
ported by  their  shoulders.  They  arc  followed  by  bands 
of  men  and  women,  dancing,  singing,  playing  on  musical 
instruments,  and  clapping  their  hands  in  cadence,  as  they 
a|)proach  the  temple.  Everywhere  are  emblems  to  remind 
the  traveller  of  similar  buildings  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges.  The  beautiful  water-lily  called  Lotus  is  repre- 
sented in  every  stage  of  growth.  Deities  arc  seated  on  a 
Lotus,  crowiuMl  with  Lotus,  and  carry  a  Lotus  stem  for  a 
sc('j)lre.  Li  both  ccMintries  it  was  an  emblem  of  the  gener- 
ative power,  and  of  the  creation  of  the  world  I'rom  water. 


EGYPT.  193 

Serpents  are  winding  about  the  ceilings,  or  interwoven  in 
rings,  to  represent  vast  astronomical  cycles.  There  are 
serpents  \vitli  the  heads  of  deities,  and  serpents  with  the 
legs  of  human  beings  ;  serpents  winged,  and  serpents 
crowned.  In  both  countries,  this  creature  was  the  symbol 
of  wisdom  and  immortality.  Three  was  a  mystical  and 
significant  number,  and  the  Triangle  is  found  in  all  their 
sacred  places.  Perhaps  its  three  sides  were  a  type  of  their 
Divine  Triad,  or  Trinity,  consisting  of  the  masculine  prin- 
ciple of  the  universe,  the  feminine  principle,  and  the  off- 
spring, or  result,  of  the  two.  The  Emblem  of  Life,  so 
often  found  on  Egyptian  monuments,  is  explained  by 
Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  as  the  union  of  the  perpendicular 
line  and  the  horizontal  line,  already  mentioned  as  in 
use  among  Hindoos ;  one  being  a  representative  of  the 
masculine  emblem  of  generation,  the  other  of  the  femi- 
nine ;  both  together  signifying  the  reproduction  of  life,  or 
birth.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  ring,  which  is  sometimes 
formed  of  eggs.  This  cross  of  Hermes,  as  it  is  called,  is 
in  various  ways  connected  with  the  hieroglyphics  of  the 
planets,  and  is  everywhere  placed  in  the  hands  of  deities, 
especially  of  Osiris.  The  sculptures  often  represent  them 
offering  it,  with  a  cornucopia  of  fruit  and  grain,  to  kings 
at  their  inauguration ;  perhaps  to  signify  the  bestowal  of 
abundant  harvests,  numerous  flocks,  and  many  children. 
It  was  generally  worn  by  the  devout,  and  was  considered 
an  amulet  of  great  virtue,  a  protection  from  Evil  Spirits. 
When  this  Cross  was  twined  with  a  Serpent,  it  was  the 
emblem  of  Immortal  Life.  The  Mundane  Egg  occurs  often 
among  the  sculptures ;  and  so  does  an  Eye  to  represent 
the  all-seeing  Osiris,  and  the  Sun.  There  are  apes  and 
dwarfs  looking  pigmy  and  strange  in  the  presence  of 
colossal  companions.  The  mysterious  emblem  called  the 
Sphinx  was  much  more  frequently  introduced  in  Egypt 
than  in  India.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  royal  emblem, 
manifesting  their  ideas  of  what  a  king  ought  to  be.  It 
had  a  lion's  body  with  a  man's  head,  or  a  ram's  head ; 
perhaps  to  signify  the  union  of  physical  strength  with 
Vol.  I.— 17  i 


194  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

intellect  in  one  case,  and  with  innocence  in  the  other. 
In  these  antique  records  of  deceased  generations,  the 
greatest  discords  occur,  as  they  do  everywhere  else  in  the 
manifestations  of  our  unharmonized  nature.  There  are 
deities  serenely  majestic,  and  in  their  sublime  presence 
priests  are  kneeling  before  a  monkey  or  a  beetle.  In  one 
ph^ce  are  pleasing  pictures  of  domestic  life,  men,  women,  and 
children  with  countenances  innocent  and  mild;  in  another 
are  heaps  of  human  hands  and  ears  cut  from  enemies  in 
battle.  Sometimes  a  man  is  represented  kneeling,  with 
his  hands  bound,  while  a  priest  points  a  knife  to  his  throat. 
Sometimes  there  are  men  wuh  knives  thrust  through  their 
foreheads,  or  with  heads  flying  from  their  shoulders.  These 
may  signify  the  execution  of  criminals,  or  the  immolation 
of  human  victims.  Such  sacrifices  were  offered  in  ancient 
times.  The  priest  examined  the  victim  and  put  his  seal 
upon  him,  as  he  did  to  animals  intended  for  the  altar. 
It  is  said  the  custom  was  abolished  in  Upper  Egypt  before 
the-  time  of  Moses ;  but  it  remained  in  other  parts  of  tlie 
empire  till  the  time  of  Amasis,  who  reigned  five  or  six 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  He  ordained  that 
wax  images  should  be  substituted  for  human  beings. 

Long  pilgrimages  to  holy  places  were  considered  effica- 
cious for  the  expiation  of  sin ;  but  there  are  no  records  of 
such  self-tortures  as  are  practised  by  Hindoo  devotees. 
Philostratus,  a  Greek  writer,  about  two  hundred  years 
after  Christ,  describes  an  association  of  men  who  lived  in 
a  grove  not  far  from  the  Nile.  He  calls  them  Gymnoso- 
phists,  which  means  naked  philosophers.  Perhaps  they 
discarded  clothing  in  sign  of  superior  sanctity  and  indiffer- 
ence to  the  world.  He  says  they  worshipped  the  god  of 
the  Nile,  and  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
Kach  one  lived  by  himself,  and  studied  and  sacrificed 
ai)art;  but  they  sometimes  met  together  in  assemblies.  If 
a  man  at  Memphis  had  by  any  chance  killed  another,  he 
was  exiled  till  th(\se  Gymnoso[)hists  had  absolved  him  by 
ceremonies  of  purification. 

The  laws  of  caste  appear  to  have  been   less  rigid    in 


EGYPT.  195 

Egypt  than  in  Hindostan.  Solomon,  though  a  foreigner, 
married  a  daughter  of  one  of  their  kings ;  a  degree  of  toler- 
ation which  perhaps  originated  in  the  fact  that  Egyptians 
and  Jews  were  both  circumcised  nations.  The  condition 
of  women  in  Egypt  was  prodigiously  in  advance  of  their 
enslaved  sisters  in  Hindostan,  It  was  customary  to  marry 
but  one  wife.  Trade  was  carried  on  by  women.  The 
sculptures  represent  them  buying  and  selling  in  the  markets, 
and  meeting  with  men  at  feasts,  apparently  on  terms  of 
equality.  AVhen  kings  died  without  sons,  daughters  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne;  and  in  some  of  the  sculptured  pro- 
cessions, queens  take  precedence  of  kings. 

When  Alexander  the  Great  conquered  Egypt,  three 
hundred  and  thirty-two  years  before  Christ,  he  founded  a 
new  city,  and  gave  it  his  own  name,  Alexandria.  Among 
its  many  splendid  edifices  for  worship,  the  most  magnificent 
was  dedicated  to  Serapis,  tutelary  deity  of  the  city. 
Sesostris,  after  his  return  from  extensive  conquests,  is  said 
to  have  introduced  into  Egypt  the  worship  of  this  new 
god.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  the  emblem  of 
Pantheism,  combining  in  himself  the  attributes  of  all  the 
gods,  and  therefore  considered  by  Sesostris  a  desirable 
point  of  unity  for  many  nations,  with  distinct  religions,  all 
under  the  control  of  his  government.  For  the  same  reason 
he  was  a  peculiarly  appropriate  deity  to  preside  over  the 
great  commercial  city  of  Alexandria,  where  worshippers 
of  various  gods  were  wont  to  congregate.  That  he  repre- 
sented all  things  seems  to  be  implied  by  the  fact  that  his 
image  was  made  of  all  metals  fused  together,  and  inlaid 
with  all  sorts  of  precious  stones.  A  great  variety  of 
emblems  were  connected  with  the  figure.  A  huge  ser- 
pent entwined  the  whole,  and  rested  his  head  in  the  hand 
of  the  god.  When  Nieocreon,  king  of  Cyprus,  inquired 
who  Serapis  was,  the  god  replied,  through  the  voice  of  his 
oracle:  "My  head  is  heaven,  my  ears  the  air,  my  eyes  the 
sunlight,  my  belly  the  sea,  and  my  feet  the  earth."  Severe 
penalties  were  incurred  by  any  one  who  ventured  to  say 
Serapis  had  ever  been  incarnated  in  a  human  form.     This 


196  PROGKESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

law  of  the  priests  might  have  originated  in  the  idea  that  it 
was  blasphemy  to  suppose  any  one  being  coiihl  combine 
in  himself  all  the  attributes  of  the  Universal  Soul.  The 
Temple  of  Serapis  is  described  as  one  of  the  stiiteliest  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  A  great  mass  of  buildings  were  in- 
cluded within  its  enclosures,  and  there  were  vast  subter- 
ranean passages  underneath,  where  it  is  supposed  some  of 
the  great  religious  Mysteries  were  celebrated.  In  the 
centre  of  the  enclosure  stood  the  Temple,  on  an  artificial 
elevation,  surrounded  with  a  magnificent  portico.  Tlie 
]ofty  ceiling  was  supported  by  immense  marble  pillars,  of 
beautiful  proportions.  The  statue  of  the  god  was  of  such 
colossal  size  that  the  right  hand  touched  the  wall  of 
the  sanctuary  on  one  side,  and  the  left  on  the  other.  An 
aperture  in  the  wall  was  so  ai'ranged  that  the  first  gleams 
of  the  rising  sun  fell  directly  on  the  fixce  ;  and  worshippers 
thought  he  smiled  to  meet  the  god  of  that  luminary.  A 
small  image  of  the  Sun,  seated  in  a  chariot,  with  four 
horses,  was  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  and  at  the  close 
of  day  was  drawn  up  by  a  powerful  magnet,  to  represent 
his  farewell.  The  temple  was  surrounded  by  a  great 
number  of  galleries  and  apartments  devoted  to  the  priests, 
and  to  devotees,  who  had  taken  vows  of  celibacy.  This 
s|»lendid  structure  was  totally  destroyed  in  the  fourth 
ce  n  t  n  ry  o  f  o  u  r  era. 

Alexander  the  Great  was  imbued  with  the  Grecian  free- 
dom of  thouglit,  and  facility  of  adaptation  to  new  things. 
He  was  moreover  desirous  of  attracting  the  enterprise, 
wealth  and  learning  of  the  world  to  his  new  city.  He 
commanded  that  the  laws  and  religion  of  Egypt  should  be 
respected,  but  he  encouraged  Greeks  and  Jews  to  settle 
there,  and  extended  the  same  toleration  to  their  opinions. 
The  site  of  the  city  was  consecrated  by  solemn  sacrifices 
both  to  the  deities  of  Egypt  and  of  Greece.  As  the  great 
commercial  route  from  India  to  various  portions  of  the 
lioman  empire  lay  through  Alexandria,  it  became  the 
great  focus  of  trade;  a  connecting  link  between  the  un- 
changing East  and  the  ever-changing  West.     It  grew  so 


EGYPT.  197 

rapidly,  that  in  a  short  time  Rome  was  the  only  city  that 
surpassed  it  in  wealth  and  grandeur.  In  the  century  fol- 
lowing Alexander,  those  two  liberal  kings  of  Egypt, 
Ptolemy  Soter  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  founded  and 
enlarged  an  academy  and  museum,  with  a  royal  library 
of  seven  hundred  thousand  volumes.  It  was  the  first 
establishment  of  the  kind  ever  known  in  the  world. 
Scholars  of  all  nations  and  creeds  flocked  thither  to  enjoy 
its  advantages.  A  general  indulgence  was  granted  to  this 
promiscuous  crowd  to  teach  their  respective  doctrines  to 
whoever  was  inclined  to  listen.  Disciples  of  diverse  sys- 
tems met  together  in  the  library,  and  at  meals,  and  had 
ample  opportunities  to  compare  theories  of  religion  and 
philosophy.  Under  these  influences  was  formed  a  new  set 
of  teachers,  who  carried  to  distant  countries  the  ideas  they 
had  received,  and  thus  shook  up  and  mixed  together  the 
forms  of  human  thought  everywhere. 

Old  Egypt,  once  called  the  "image  of  heaven,  and  the 
temple  of  the  whole  world,"  dwindled  away.  All  the 
nations  had  borrowed  of  her  religion  and  science,  but  she 
was  too  conservative  to  borrow  of  them.  Successively 
conquered  by  Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome,  and  largely  settled 
by  Jews,  she  gradually  lost  her  strength.  Her  princes 
were  Grecians,  her  children  attended  Greek  schools.  Her 
religion  became  a  lifeless  body,  her  language  utterly  ex- 
tinct, her  sacred  writing  an  unknown  cipher,  and  half  her 
monuments  buried  in  the  drifting  sand.  But  traces  of  her 
customs  still  exist  on  tlie  shores  of  the  Nile.  Modern 
jugglers  know  the  trick  by  which  her  old  magicians  ren- 
dered serpents  motionless  or  stiff.  They  compress  the 
cervical  spine  of  the  animal  between  the  finger  and  thumb 
and  call  it  changing  the  serpent  into  a  rod,  or  stick. 
When  thrown  down,  the  pressure  being  removed,  it  be- 
comes a  serpent  again.  Idiots  are  considered  holy,  and 
their  exclamations  prophetic.  In  this  form  lingers  the 
ancient  reverence  for  unpremeditated  speech.  The  dif- 
ferent sections  of  Cairo  are  now  under  the  guardianship  of 
genii,  as  thev  were  formcrlv  each  under  the  protection  of 
Vol.  I— 17* 


198  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

some  tutelary  deity.  An  image  of  a  ram's  head  is  still 
worn  as  an  amulet  against  evil,  and  so  is  the  golden  beetle, 
once  sacred  to  the  sun,  and  an  emblem  of  creation.  The 
star  of  Isis  looks  down  brightly  as  ever  on  the  land  that 
was  once  her  own.  The  Sphinx  stands  dark  and  solemn  in 
the  desert  twilight,  a  huge  phantom  of  the  miglity  past, 
unable  to  reveal  her  mystery, 

"There  sits  drear  Egypt,  *mid  beleaguering  sands, 
Half  human  and  half  beast; 
Tlie  burntout  torch  -within  lier  mouldering  hands, 
That  once  lit  all  the  East." 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  199 


CHINA    AND    THIBET. 

"I  compile  and  transmit  to  posterity,  but  write  not  anything  new.  I 
believe  and  love  the  ancients,  taking  Laou  Pang  for  my  pattern." 

CoxFUcms. 

The  Chinese  claim  for  themselves  almost  unlimited  an- 
tiquity. Their  traditions  go  back  millions  of  years,  to  a 
time  when  they  were  governed  by  the  gods;  but  their 
early  history  is  enveloped  in  thick  darkness.  It  is  the 
universal  belief  in  Benares  that  they  emigrated  from  Hin- 
dostan,  and  this  opinion  is  said  to  be  sustained  by  a  passage 
in  the  Code  of  Menu.  Their  historical  books,  translated  by 
Frenchmen  of  science,  exhibit  a  regular  chronology,  ex- 
tending back  three  thousand  years  before  our  era.  Con- 
siderable knowledge  of  astronomy  existed  among  them  at 
a  very  early  period.  One  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in 
China,  who  had  read  more  than  a  hundred  volumes  of  their 
annals,  assures  us  that  they  observed  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  soon  after  our  date  of  the  Deluge ;  and 
European  scholars  have  satisfied  themselves  that  they 
accurately  calculated  an  eclipse  two  thousand  one  hundred 
and  fifty-five  years  before  Christ.  They  named  successive 
days  for  tlie  same  seven  planets  that  Hindoos  and  Egyp- 
tians did.  Their  learned  men  have  always  occupied  them- 
selves with  history,  political  maxims  and  external  sciences, 
without  manifesting  much  interest  in  metaphysical  in- 
quiries or  mystical  theories.  They  have  changed  less  in 
the  course  of  ages  than  any  other  nation  on  earth,  partly 
owing  to  the  peculiarity  of  their  language,  which  impedes 
the  introduction  of  foreign  literature,  and  parti 3^  owing  to 
their  extreme  veneration  for  everything  ancient.  Opinions 
must  be  sustained  by  precedent  and  authority,  and  once 


200  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

received  they  are  cast  into  an  exact  mould,  the  pattern  of 
which  must  never  change.  Their  minds  are  never  troubled 
with  the  query,  which,  in  one  form  or  another,  has  dis- 
turbed the  repose  of  the  priesthood  all  the  world  over;  no 
restless  activity  of  intellect  Induces  them  to  inquire :  "  Why 
must  I  always  wear  my  grandfather's  hat?  My  head  was 
not  measured  for  it."  Unquestioning  obedience  to  su- 
periors, in  church,  state,  and  household,  constitutes  their 
morality.  Their  emperor  is  called  Holy  Son  of  Heaven, 
and  Sole  Guardian  of  the  Earth."  His  subjects  prostrate 
themselves  in  his  presence,  and  do  homage  to  his  image 
and  his  throne.  He  is,  and  always  has  been,  at  the  head 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  A  belief  in  the  divine  origin  of 
kings,  so  universal  among  the  ancients,  is  expressed  by 
the  Chinese  in  a  tradition  concerning  their  first  monarch, 
Fo-hi.  They  say  he  had  no  mortal  father ;  that  his 
mother  conceived  him  encompassed  by  a  rainbow.  Men 
remarkable  for  holiness  or  wisdom  are  generally  called 
Tien-tse,  Sons  of  Heaven.  It  is  a  common  opinion  that 
the}''  had  no  mortal  fathers,  but  derived  their  existence 
from  some  heavenly  source. 

The  greatest  name  among  Chinese  sages  is  Kong-Fou- 
tseu,  Latinized  into  Confucius.  He  was  born  five  hundred 
and  fifty-one  years  before  Christ.  In  bo3^hood  he  was  re- 
markably serious,  and  manifested  no  taste  for  childish 
amusements.  His  ancestors  held  offices  under  government 
for  six  generations,  but  in  youth  he  was  poor,  and  obliged 
to  support  himself  by  manual  labour.  He  had  but  one 
wife,  to  whom  he  was  married  at  nineteen  years  of  ago. 
When  twenty  years  old,  he  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  grain  and  cattle  in  his  native  province,  as  a  reward  for 
intelligence  and  virtuous  conduct.  vYfterward  he  held  the 
rank  of  Afandarin  at  court,  but  as  the  king  would  not 
follow  his  advice  in  what  he  deemed  for  the  good  of  tlie 
people,  he  resigned  his  office,  went  into  a  neighbouring 
province,  and  became  a  teacher  of  morals.  He  is  said  to 
luive  had  several  thousand  disci])les,  by  whom  he  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  with  the  deepest  veneration.     They 


CHIXA  AND   THIBET.  201 

said:  "Since  men  existed,  there  has  never  been  one  to  be 
compared  to  Confucius."  "  As  the  heavens  cannot  be 
scaled,  even  by  the  highest  ladder,  so  no  man  can  attain  to 
Confucius.  Were  he  to  obtain  the  throne,  he  would  es- 
tablish the  people,  and  they  would  be  correct."  "  He  may 
be  compared  to  heaven  and  earth,  in  their  supporting, 
containing,  and  overshadowing  all  things;  to  the  regular 
revolutions  of  the  seasons,  and  the  alternate  shining  of  the 
sun  and  moon."  But  it  is  not  likely  that  such  trans- 
cendent merit  would  have  been  accorded  to  him  in  any 
other  countr3^ 

The  formality  of  Chinese  etiquette  is  stamped  on  all  that 
is  related  of  him.  His  moral  teachings  are  mixed  with 
many  rules  how  to  regulate  the  countenance,  and  how  to 
stand  or  walk  in  the  presence  of  elders,  or  superiors  in 
rank.  It  is  recorded,  as  very  important,  that  on  the  first 
of  every  month  he  always  put  on  his  court  robes,  and 
■waited  on  the  prince.  "  When  he  entered  the  palace  door 
he  crouched  down,  as  if  the  door  could  not  admit  him. 
Holding  up  his  robes,  he  ascended  the  hall,  bending  his 
body,  repressing  his  breath,  as  if  he  did  not  dare  to  breathe. 
When  he  passed  by  the  empty  throne,  his  countenance 
changed  suddenly,  and  he  walked  with  grave  and  meas- 
ured steps,  as  if  fettered.  When  he  went  out,  and  descended 
one  step,  he  relaxed  his  countenance  a  little,  and  assumed 
a  mild  and  pleasing  deportment.  When  he  reached  the 
foot  of  the  stairs,  he  let  fall  his  robes,  and  expanded  his 
arms  like  a  bird's  wings."  "  When  he  met  any  person 
in  mourning,  he  bowed  even  to  the  front  cross-beam  of  his 
carriage ;  he  did  the  same  to  a  person  bearing  the  census 
of  the  people.  If  the  mat  was  not  laid  straight,  he  sat  not 
down.  When  old  men,  who  walked  with  canes,  withdrew 
from  a  feast,  he  rose  and  retired  also."  He  never  drank 
wine  enough  to  confuse  his  mind  ;  and  whatsoever  he  ate 
or  drank,  he  first  offered  a  portion  to  the  gods.  It  is  re- 
corded that  he  turned  back  from  a  journey,  on  account  of 
meeting  unlucky  omens  by  the  way.  He  was  fond  of 
music,  and  often  recommended  its  cultivation  ;  particularly 

1* 


202  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

that  of  their  famous  monarch,  Shun,  which  so  excited  him, 
when  he  first  heard  it,  that  he  knew  not  the  taste  of  hia 
food  for  three  months  after.  His  doctrines  are  based  on 
the  idea  that  human  nature  is  good  and  beautiful,  unless 
obscured  by  the  darkness  of  ignorance,  or  sullied  by  the 
contasfion  of  vice.  As  the  best  means  of  restoring  its  ori- 
ginal  lustre,  he  inculcates  reverence  toward  the  Supreme 
Euler,  justice  and  kindness  toward  others,  temperate  indul- 
gence of  the  appetites,  and  a  due  regard  to  the  medium  of 
propriety  in  all  things.  His  respect  for  parental  authority 
was  carried  to  such  an  extreme,  that  he  thought  parents 
had  a  right  to  sell  their  children.  He  encouraged  mar- 
riage and  agriculture,  but  was  less  favourable  to  commerce. 
On  religious  subjects  his  recorded  sayings  are  very  inde- 
finite. He  appears  to  have  conformed  to  the  usages  of  his 
country  as  he  found  them.  He  alludes  reverently  to  a 
Supreme  Kuler,  and  it  may  he  inferred  that  he  had  belief 
of  some  kind  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  inculcates 
the  worship  of  Spirits,  and  ceremonial  observances  to  the 
souls  of  ancestors. 

He  wrote  no  books,  and  his  literary  merit,  as  he  himself 
says,  is  merely  that  of  a  compiler.  Being  desirous  to  hand 
down  to  posterity  the  worship  and  the  principles  of  political 
wisdom,  practised  by  their  pattern-princes,  Yaou  and  Shun, 
who  lived  fifteen  hundred  years  before  him,  he  collected 
and  arranged  the  scattered  fragments  of  old  books  relating 
to  the  laws  and  manners  of  ancient  times.  Therefore,  the 
Chinese  consider  him  superior  even  to  those  revered  nion- 
archs  ;  for  "  they  benefitted  one  age  only  by  their  wise 
and  benevolent  government;  while  Confucius,  by  transmit- 
ting their  principles  to  ten  thousand  ages,  possesses  ten 
thousand  times  their  merit." 

The  Chinese  sage  lived  seventy-thi'ce  years,  and  toward 
the  close  of  his  life  mourned  much  over  modern  degeneracy. 
A  few  days  before  his  death,  he  said  to  his  disciples : 
"  Kings  refuse  to  follow  my  maxims,  and  since  I  am  no 
longer  useful  in  the  world,  it  is  best  I  should  depart  from 
it."     Many  of  his  disciples  erected  a  tent  near  his  grave, 


CHINA   AND   THIBET,  203 

and  remained  there  three  years,  mourning  for  liim,  and 
offering  prayers  and  sacrifices;  one  of  them  lingered  six 
3'ears.  llis  descendants  inherit  the  oflice  and  title  of  ]\ran- 
darins,  and,  to  this  day,  religious  honours  are  paid  to  his 
memory,  as  if  he  were  an  illustrious  ancestor  lately  de- 
ceased. The  following  are  samples  of  his  maxims,  as 
recorded  by  his  disciples  : — 

*'  Not  to  correct  our  faults  is  to  commit  new  ones." 

"  Be  rigid  to  yourself  and  gentle  to  others,  and  you  will 
have  no  enemies." 

"  The  wise  man  loves  to  be  by  himself,  the  fool  seeks 
company." 

"By  the  very  errors  of  men,  we  may  judge  whether 
they  are  virtuous  or  not.  If  a  good  man  eiTs,  it  is  gener- 
ally through  excess  of  affection  or  gratitude  ;  but  the 
errors  of  a  vicious  man  commonl}^  proceed  from  excess  of 
hatred  and  ingratitude." 

"  Life  and  death  depend  on  the  law  of  Tien,  which  is 
immutable.  Poverty  and  riches  are  dispensed  by  Tien, 
wdio  cannot  be  compelled.  A  wise  man  reveres  the  dis- 
pensations of  Tien,  and  thus  enjoys  inward  tranquillity 
and  peace." 

"  How  vast  is  the  power  of  Spirits  !  An  ocean  of  in- 
visible Intelligences  surround  us  everywhere.  If  you  look 
for  them,  you  cannot  see  them.  If  you  listen,  you  cannot 
hear  them.  Identified  with  the  substance  of  all  things, 
they  cannot  be  separated  from  it.  They  cause  men  to 
purify  and  sanctify  their  hearts  ;  to  clothe  themselves  with 
festive  garments,  and  offer  oblations  to  their  ancestors. 
They  are  everywhere  above  us,  on  the  right  and  on  the 
left.  Their  coming  cannot  be  calculated.  How  important 
that  we  should  not  neglect  them  !" 

"  Worship  the  gods,  as  though  they  were  visibly  present. 
Sacrifice  to  ancestors  as  if  they  were  here." 

"He  who  knows  right  principles  is  not  equal  to  him 
who  lovers  them ;  nor  is  he  who  loves  them  equal  to  him 
who  delights  in  them." 

"Coarse  rice  for  food,  water  for  drink,  and  one's  bended 


204  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

arm  for  a  pillow,  even  in  the  midst  of  these  there  is  happi- 
ness;  but  riches  and  honours  gained  bj  injustice  arc  to  mo 
like  fleetinsf  clouds," 

'•To  know  that  a  thing  is  right  and  not  to  do  it,  is 
weakness." 

"  Have  not  a  friend  morally  inferior  to  yourself." 

"  If  you  err,  fear  not  to  reform." 

"Be  not  sorry  that  men  do  not  know  you,  but  be  soi'ry 
that  you  are  ignorant  of  men." 

"The  highest  exercise  of  benevolence  is  tender  affection 
for  relatives." 

"  Teach  all,  without  regard  to  what  class  they  belong." 

"To  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  music  and  rites,  to 
teach  others  principles  of  virtue,  to  possess  the  friendship 
of  many  wise  men,  these  are  useful  satisfactions.  But 
satisfactions  derived  from  pride,  vanity,  idleness,  and  sen- 
sual pleasures,  are  injurious." 

"  How  wise  is  Hwuy  !  He  has  only  a  bamboo  vase  for 
his  rice,  a  cup  to  drink  from,  and  a  mean  narrow  lane  for 
his  habitation.  Other  men  could  not  endure  such  priva- 
tions; but  it  disturbs  not  the  serenity  of  Hwuy  !" 

"Fix  the  thoughts  on  duty,  practise  without  ceasing  the 
virtue  of  humanity,  and,  if  you  have  leisure,  cultivate  the 
arts." 

"  To  keep  invariably  in  the  due  medium  constitutes  vir- 
tue ;  men  rarely  persevere  in  it." 

"  The  nature  of  man  is  upright.  If  in  the  course  of  his 
life  he  loses  this  natural  uprightness,  he  removes  far  from 
him  all  happiness." 

"  If  wise  and  virtuous  men  were  to  govern  a  state  for  a 
hundred  years,  they  could  put  an  end  to  tyranny  and 
punishments." 

"Abroad,  do  your  duty  to  your  prince  and  his  magis- 
trates. At  home,  obey  your  father,  mother,  and  elder 
brothers.  In  funeral  and  sacrificial  rites,  do  not  pennit 
any  negligence.  Allow  yourself  no  excess  in  the  use  of 
wine," 

"I  see  no  defect  in  the  character  of  Yu.     He  was  sober 


CHINA    AND   THIBET.  205 

in  eating  and  drinking,  and  eminently  pious  toward  Spirits 
and  ancestors.  His  common  apparel  was  coarse,  but  his 
sacrificial  robes  were  beautifully  adorned.  He  lived  in  an 
humble  dwelling,  but  employed  his  strength  in  making 
ditches  and  water-courses  for  the  good  of  the  people." 

There  was  an  old  tradition  that  the  Yu  here  referred  to 
by  Confucius  was  born  of  a  virgin,  who  conceiv^ed  him 
from  the  rays  of  a  star.  He  is  said  to  have  been  employed 
b}^  the  emperor  to  drain  off  the  waters  of  a  great  deluge, 
which,  according  to  Chinese  chronology,  occurred  two 
thousand  two  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

When  Confucius  was  asked  what  might  be  said  in  favour 
of  rewarding  hatred  by  kindness,  he  replied :  "  In  that  case, 
Avith  what  will  you  reward  kindness?  lleturn  bad  treat- 
ment with  equity,  and  recompense  kindness  with  kindness." 
One  of  his  disciples  begged  that  he  would  teach  him  to  die 
well.  He  answered  :  "  You  have  not  yet  learned  to  live 
well ;  when  you  have  learned  that,  you  will  know  how  to 
die  well."  Some  person  inquired  of  him  what  one  maxim 
expressed  the  conduct  proper  for  a  whole  life.  He  re- 
joined :  "  Never  do  to  others  what  you  do  not  wish  them 
to  do  to  you."  One  day,  when  he  had  gone  out  from 
among  his  scholars,  a  question  arose  concerning  the  general 
purport  of  his  teaching.  One  of  them  said :  "  The  doctrine 
of  our  master  consists  solely  in  integrity  of  heart,  and  treat- 
ing his  neighbour  as  he  himself  wishes  to  be  treated." 
There  is  a  tradition  that  Confucius  was  often  heard  to 
repeat:  "In  the  Land  of  the  West  will  the  holy  one  be 
found."  This  declaration  coincides  with  a  prophecy  in 
their  old  Sacred  Books,  and  was  afterward  brought  into 
general  notice  when  the  religion  of  Fo  was  introduced  from 
India,  which  they  are  accustomed  to  designate  as  the  Land 
of  the  West. 

The  compilation  of  ancient  history  and  laws  made  by 
Confucius  is  called,  by  w^ay  of  pre-eminence,  "  The  Five 
Volumes."  They  date  four  hundred  years  before  Moses, 
about  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and 
refer  continually  to  a  religion  long  established  at  the  time 
Vol.  I.— 18 


206  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

they  were  written,  which  they  merely  seek  to  preserve  and 
impress  upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  They  arc  univer- 
sally considered  to  be  very  sacred  authority,  though  they 
do  not  claim  to  be  divine  revelations,  and  a  comparatively 
small  portion  of  their  contents  are  of  a  strictly  religious 
character.  They  contain  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
empire,  rules  for  rites  and  ceremonies,  moral  maxims,  and 
memoirs  of  princes.  Apparently,  their  chief  object  was  to 
preserve  tranquillity  in  the  state,  by  a  precise  regulation 
of  manners  and  the  inculcation  of  perfect  obedience  to 
government.  They  preserve  a  tradition  concerning  a  mys- 
terious Garden,  where  grew  a  Tree,  bearing  Apples  of  Im- 
mortality, guarded  by  a  winged  Serpent,  called  a  Dragon. 
They  describe  a  primitive  age  of  the  world,  when  the  earth 
yielded  abundance  of  delicious  fruits  witliout  cultivation, 
and  the  seasons  were  untroubled  by  wind  or  storms. 
There  was  no  calamity,  sickness  or  death.  Men  were 
then  good  without  effort;  for  the  human  heart  was  in 
harmony  with  the  peacefulness  and  beauty  of  nature. 
After  this  happy  time,  men  degenerated  by  progressive 
stages.  But  finally  Tien-tse,  a  Son  of  Heaven,  would  be 
born  into  the  world,  do  away  all  sin,  and  restore  oi'der. 
These  ancient  books  contain  no  specific  doctrine  concerning 
God,  but  they  make  frequent  mention  of  One  Invisible 
Being,  under  the  name  of  Chang-ti,  which  signifies  the 
Supreme  Emperor.  Sometimes  he  is  called  Tien,  meaning 
the  visible  heaven.  Their  interpreters  explain  this  by 
saying:  "  The  firmament  is  the  most  glorious  work  pro- 
duced by  the  Great  First  Cause."  Chang-ti  is  described 
as  the  Original  Principle  of  all  things,  almighty,  omni- 
scient, knowing  the  inmost  secrets  of  the  heart,  watching 
over  the  conduct  of  the  universe,  and  permitting  nothing 
to  happen  contrary  to  his  will ;  rewarding  virtue  and  pun- 
ishing wickedness,  raising  up  and  casting  down  kings,  and 
sending  public  calamities  as  a  warning  to  nations  to  repent 
and  forsake  their  sins.  When  an  unjust  emperor  was 
struck  by  lightning,  these  Sacred  Volumes  represent  it  aa 
a  direct  and  visible  punisliment,  sent  by  Tien,  or  Heaven, 


CIIIXA    AXD   THIBET.  207 

as  an  admonition  to  mankind.  Tlic}^  contain  many  solemn 
invocations  to  Cliang-ti,  for  the  recovery  of  a  good  emperor 
from  dangerous  illness,  to  obtain  rain  after  a  severe  drought, 
and  other  similar  benefits  ;  and  they  relate  many  instances 
to  assure  devout  readers  that  such  prayers  are  generally 
heard  and  answered.  They  likewise  affirm  that  no  out- 
ward adoration  can  be  pleasing  to  Tien  unless  it  proceeds 
from  a  sincere  heart. 

From  their  most  ancient  times  the  Supreme  Emperor  of 
Heaven  has  been"  worshipped  at  stated  seasons,  with  great 
solemnity.  When  a  new  emperor  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
it  was  always  considered,  his  duty  to  plough  a  portion  of 
the  ground,  in  token  of  humility,  and  cultivate  a  crop  to 
be  offered  in  sacrifice  to  Chang-ti.  The  empress  feeds  silk 
worms,  and  assists  in  manufacturing  and  embroidering  rich 
silks,  to  be  used  as  ornaments  when  these  sheaf-offerings 
are  carried  in  procession,  and  devoutly  presented,  by  royal 
hands,  to  the  Emperor  of  Heaven.  Whenever  these  cere- 
monials have  been  omitted,  or  negligently  performed,  the 
Sacred  Books  declare  that  the  displeasure  of  Chang-ti  has 
soon  after  been  manifested  by  extraordinary  public  calami- 
ties. Some  of  the  early  emperors,  in  addition  to  the  cus- 
tomary agricultural  offerings,  kept  a  domestic  park  to  rear 
six  sorts  of  animals  for  sacrifice,  twice  a  year,  at  the  winter 
solstice  and  the  summer  solstice.  On  these  occasions,  the 
people  were  enjoined  to  do  nothing,  and  think  of  nothing 
but  joining  with  the  emperor  in  w(^rship  of  Chang-ti.  In 
the  reign  of  Tching-tang  there  was  a  distressing  famme  for 
seven  years,  occasioned  by  drought.  The  emperor  having 
in  vain  offered  a  multitude  of  sacrifices,  at  last  resolved  to 
devote  himself  as  a  victim  to  appease  the  anger  of  Heaven. 
He  took  off  his  imperial  robes,  and,  accompanied  by  the 
grandees  of  his  court,  went  to  a  mountain  some  distance 
from  the  city,  where  with  bare  head  and  naked  feet,  in  the 
posture  of  a  criminal,  he  prostrated  himself  nine  times  be- 
fore the  Ruler  of  the  Universe,  and  uttered  the  following 
prayer:  "O  Supreme  Emperor,  all  the  sacrifices  I  have 
offered  to  implore  thy  mercy  have  been  in  vain  ;  therefore 


208  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

it  is  doubtless  I  myself,  who  have  drawn  down  so  much 
misery  on  my  people.  May  I  dare  to  ask  wliat  my  fault 
is?  Is  it  the  magnificence  of  my  palace,  or  the  luxuries 
of  my  table  ?  Is  it  the  number  of  my  concubines  ?  which, 
however,  are  not  more  than  the  laws  allow  me.  I  am 
sincerely  desirous  to  repair  all  my  faults  by  modesty,  fru-' 
gality,  and  temperance  ;  and  if  tliis  be  insufficient,  I  offer 
myself  as  a  victim  to  justice.  Let  me  be  punished,  and 
my  people  spared.  I  shall  be  content  to  have  thy  thun- 
derbolt fall  on  my  head,  if  at  the  same  time  rain  descends 
upon  the  earth,  to  relieve  the  miseries  of  my  people."  Ilis 
prayer  was  answered.  Clouds  overspread  the  sk}^,  and 
genial  showers  moistened  the  earth,  which  brought  forth 
abundant  harvests. 

These  Five  Sacred  Books  favour  belief  in  a  multitude 
of  Spirits,  pervading  the  universe.  They  say  nothing 
definite  concerning  future  rewards  and  punishments ;  but 
a  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  implied  by  the 
fact  that  they  prescribe  ceremonials  to  be  performed  for  the 
souls  of  deceased  ancestors,  and  speak  of  the  virtuous  de- 
joarted  as  being  near  Chang-ti. 

The  Golden  Age  of  the  Past  is  much  dwelt  upon  by  their 
ancient  commentators.  One  of  them  says :  "  All  places 
were  then  equally  the  native  country  of  every  man.  Flocks 
wandered  in  the  fields  without  any  guide;  birds  filled  the 
air  with  their  melodious  voices ;  and  the  fruits  grew  of  their 
own  accord.  Man  lived  pleasantly  with  the  animals,  and  all 
creatures  were  members  of  the  same  family.  Ignorant  of 
evil,  man  lived  in  simplicity  and  perfect  innocence."  An- 
other says :  "  In  the  first  age  of  perfect  purity,  all  was  in 
Ijarmony,  and  the  passions  did  not  occasion  the  sHghtest 
murmur.  Man,  united  to  sovereign  reason  within,  conformed 
his  outward  actions  to  sovereign  justice.  Far  from  all  du- 
plicity and  falsehood,  his  soul  received  marvellous  felicity 
from  heaven,  and  the  purest  deliglits  from  earth." 

The  first  man  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Tai  Wang,  and 
the  first  woman  Pao  Sec.  In  one  of  The  Five  Volumes, 
called  Chi  King,  it  is  said:  "Tien  ])laccd  man  u})ou  a  high 


CHINA    AND   TPIIBET.  209 

mountain,  which  Tai  Wang  rendered  fruitless  by  his  own 
fjiult.  He  filled  the  eartli  with  thorns  and  briars,  and  said, 
I  am  not  guilty,  for  I  could  not  do  otherwise.  Why  did 
he  plunge  us  into  so  much  misery?  All  was  subjected  to 
man  at  first,,  but  a  woman  threw  us  into  slavery.  The 
wise  husband  raised  up  a  bulwark  of  walls;  but  the 
woman,  by  an  ambitious  desire  of  knowledge,  demolished 
them.  Our  misery  did  not  come  from  Ucaven,  but  from  a 
woman.  She  lost  the  human  race.  Ah,  unhap|>y  Pao 
See!  thou  kindled  the  fire  that  consumes  us,  and  which  is 
every  day  augmenting.  Our  misery  has  lasted  many  ages. 
The  world  is  lost.  Vice  overflows  all  things,  like  a  mortal 
poison."  The  commentator  Lopi  says :  "  After  man  had 
acquired  false  science,  nature  was  spoiled  and  degraded. 
All  creatures  became  his  enemies.  The  birds  of  the  air, 
the  beasts  of  the  field,  the  serpents  and  the  reptiles,  con- 
spired to  hurt  him." 

The  Five  Volumes  arc  full  of  prophecies  concerning  a 
Golden  Age  in  the  Future.  All  these  relate  to  the  glory 
of  the  Chinese  empire,  which  is  one  day  to  extend  over  the 
fice  of  the  whole  earth.  It  is  the  universal  belief  that  a 
Divine  Man  will  establish  himself  on  their  Holy  Mountain, 
and  everywhere  restore  peace  and  happiness.  This  moun- 
tain is  called  Kou-En-Lun,  and  is  supposed  to  be  in  the 
middle  of  the  world.  One  of  The  Five  Volumes,  called 
Chan-Hai-King,  thus  describes  it:  "All  that  could  be  de- 
sired, wondrous  trees,  marvellous  fountains,  and  flow^ery 
shades,  are  found  in  the  hidden  garden  on  that  sacred  hill. 
This  mountain  is  the  inferior  palace  of  the  Sovereign  Lord. 
The  animal  Kaiming  guards  the  entrance." 

"  The  Lord  looks  with  pleasure  upon  the  Holy  Moun- 
tain. It  is  the  abode  of  peace.  There  grow  none  of  the 
trees  employed  to  make  warlike  instruments.  It  is  an 
eternal  kingdom.  It  is  the  work  of  the  Most  High.  The 
Kingdom  of  the  Middle  is  where  the  Holy  Son  of  Heaven 
will  come  to  reign.  He  allows  no  wicked  men  to  enter 
there.  He  banishes  them  into  the  dark  abodes  of  beasts 
and  monsters.  The  subjects  of  that  kingdom  are  called 
Vol.  I.— 18* 


210  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

heavenly  people,  because  they  are  governed  by  the  Holy 
k5on  of  Heaven,  who  perfects  them  from  within  cixu] 
without,  and  nourishes  them  by  his  supreme  virtue  and 
celestial  doctrine,  so  that  they  cry  out  with  joy.  The  Son 
of  Heaven  is  truly  the  Father  of  his  people,  and  Lord  of 
the  Universe." 

"This  is  the  Mountain  of  the  Lord:  these  living  foun- 
tains are  the  pure  waters  wherein  the  subjects  of  the  Prince 
of  Peace  are  to  quench  their  thirst.  He  himself  has  chosen 
this  mountain.  He  himself  has  opened  the  clear  streams. 
It  is  hither  that  all  the  faithful  nations  must  come.  It  is 
here  that  all  the  kings  will  meet." 

One  of  the  ancient  commentators  on  the  Sacred  Books 
says :  "  We  have  learned  from  our  ancestors  that  there  as- 
suredly is  a  mountain  called  Kou-En-Lun  ;  though  hitherto 
no  one  has  found  it."  Another  says :  "  A  delicious  garden, 
refreshed  with  zephyrs,  and  planted  with  odoriferous  trees, 
was  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  mountain,  which  was  the 
avenue  of  heaven.  The  waters  that  moistened  it  flowed 
from  a  source  called  the  Fountain  of  Immortality.  He 
who  drinks  of  it  never  dies.  Thence  flowed  four  rivers. 
A  Golden  River,  betwixt  the  south  and  east;  a  Red  River, 
between  the  north  and  east;  a  Peaceful  River,  between  the 
south  and  west;  and  the  River  of  the  Lamb,  between  the 
north  and  west.  These  magnificent  floods  are  the  spiritual 
fountains  of  the  Sovereign  Lord,  by  which  he  heals  nations 
and  fructifies  all  things."  "  If  you  double  the  height  of 
Kou-En-Lun  it  will  become  the  Supreme  Heaven,  where 
S[)irits  live,  the  palace  of  the  Great  Lord  and  Sovereign 
Ruler."  • 

The  Five  Volumes  state  that  "the  Source  and  Root  of 
all  is  One.  This  SelfExistcnt  Unit\-  necessarily  produced 
a  second.  The  fii'st  and  second,  by  their  union,  produced 
a  thinl.     These  Three  produced  all." 

"Tiie  ancient  em})erors  solemnly  sacrificed,  every  three 
years,  to  Him  who  is  One  and  Three." 

"Tien  helps  people  of  the  infri'ior  worlds.  He  gave 
them   a   •jiiide  and    teachei',   the   niithrul   minister  of  the 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  211 

Supreme  Lord,  to  whom,  out  of  love,  lie  intrnsU-d  tlic 
government  of  the  universe.  Tien  is  The  Holy  One 
ivitliout  a  voice.  The  Holy  One  is  Tien  speaking  vjitli  a 
voice."     [That  is,  the  Word.] 

One  of  the  old  commentators  says :  "  By  consulting  the 
ancient  traditions,  we  know  that  though  the  Holy  One  will 
be  born  upon  earth,  yet  he  existed  before  anything  was 
made." 

One  of  the  Five  Volutiics,  called  Y  King,  says:  "The 
Holy  One  will  unite  in  himself  all  the  virtues  of  heaven 
and  earth.  By  his  justice  the  world  will  be  re-established 
in  the  ways  of  righteousness.  He  will  labour  and  suifcr 
much.  He  must  pass  the  great  torrent,  whose  waves  shall 
enter  into  his  soul ;  but  he  alone  can  offer  up  to  the  Lord 
a  sacrifice  worthy  of  him," 

An  ancient  commentator  says :  "  The  common  people 
sacrifice  their  lives  to  gain  bread  ;  the  philosophers  to  ac- 
quire reputation;  the  nobility  to  perpetuate  their  families. 
The  Holy  does  not  seek  himself,  but  the  good  of  others. 
He  enriches  others  and  impoverishes  himself.  He  dies  to 
save  the  world." 

In  one  of  The  Five  Volumes,  called  Chu  King,  it  is 
written:  "Tien,  the  Sovereign  Lord,  said  to  Venwang 
[The  Prince  of  Peace]  :  I  love  pure  and  simple  virtue,  like 
thine.  It  makes  no  noise,  it  does  not  dazzle  from  without. 
It  is  not  proud  or  forward.  Seeing  thee,  one  Avould  say 
thou  hadst  no  light,  no  knowledge,  but  to  conform  thyself 
to  m}^  laws." 

"  AYe  expect  our  king.  When  he  comes  he  will  deliver 
us  from  all  misery.     He  will  restore  us  to  new  life." 

A  nephew  of  Confucius  writes:  "We  expect  this 
Divine  Man,  and  he  is  to  come  after  three  thousand  years  " 
Another  disciple  of  Confucius  adds:  "The  people  long 
for  his  coming,  as  the  dry  grass  longs  for  the  clouds  and 
the  rainbow." 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  Book  of  Chu  King: 
"The  Sovereign  Lord  of  Heaven  produced  all  the  nations 
of  the  world,  and  reigns  over  them.     He  makes  no  excep* 


212  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tion  of  persons,  but  esteems  virtue  alone,  loving  men  only 
so  far  as  they  worship  him  sincerely.  lie  hears  the  prayers 
of  the  merciful,  but  he  destroys  the  wicked.  We  ought  to 
pray  to  liim  for  immortal  life." 

"Perfection  consists  in  being  reunited  to  the  Supreme 
Unity.  The  soul  was  at  first  luminous,  but  it  was  after- 
ward obscured.  It  should  be  our  earnest  endeavour  to 
restore  it  to  its  primitive  light ;  and  it  is  oidy  by  destroying 
all  wrong  desires,  and  all  self-love,  that  we  can  perceive 
celestial  reason.  What  is  called  reason  is  properly  an 
attribute  of  Tien,  the  Supreme  God.  The  light  which  he 
communicates  to  men  is  a  participation  of  this  reason. 
What  is  called  reason  in  Tien  is  virtue  in  man,  and,  when 
reduced  to  practice,  is  called  justice.  The  truly  wise  man 
remains  within  himself,  and  piety  rules  all  his  conduct." 

"  To  think  that  we  have  virtue,  is  to  have  very  little  of 
it.  Wisdom  consists  in  being  very  humble,  as  if  we  were 
incapable  of  anything,  yet  ardent,  as  if  we  could  do  all." 

"  When  thou  art  in  the  secret  places  of  thy  house,  do 
not  say,  None  sees  me  ;  for  there  is  an  Intelligent  Spirit, 
who  seeth  all.  Tien,  the  Supreme,  pierces  into  the  recesses 
of  the  heart,  as  light  penetrates  into  a  dark  room.  We 
must  endeavour  to  be  in  harmony  with  his  light,  like  a 
musical  instrument  perfectly  attuned.  We  must  receive 
from  his  hand,  as  soon  as  he  opens  it.  He  seeks  to  en- 
lighten us  continually  ;  but,  by  our  disorderly  passions,  we 
close  the  entrance  to  our  souls." 

"  Mankind,  overwhelmed  with  afflictions,  seem  to  doubt 
of  Providence  ;  but  when  the  hour  of  executing  his  decrees 
shall  come,  none  can  resist  him.  He  will  then  show  that 
when  he  punished,  he  was  just  and  good,  and  that  he  was 
never  actuated  by  vengeance  or  hatred." 

These  Five  Books,  and  other  volumes  containing  the 
recorded  sayings  of  Confucius,  are  the  standard  literature 
of  China,  the  basis  of  all  their  moral  and  political  wisdom. 
Every  schoolboy  in  the  empire  has  committed  them  to 
memory  from  time  immemorial,  and  to  call  in  question  any- 
thing they  assert  would  be  deemed  the  most  alarming  heresy. 


CHINA    AND    THIBET.  213 

There  has  always  existed  in  China  a  tribnnal  called  tlie 
Court  of  Kites,  invested  with  full  autliority  to  condemn  and 
suppress  any  hurtful  innovations ;  and  this  has  greatly 
contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the  ancient  religion. 
But  the  plain  practical  teaching  of  Confucius  had  no  mar- 
vels to  overawe  the  imagination,  and  it  prescinbed  no 
ascetic  practices,  or  elaborate  ceremonials,  by  which  the 
sinner  could  mitigate  remorse,  and  hope  to  reconcile  him- 
self with  Divine  Powers.  Consequently,  the  populace 
manifested  an  inclination  to  adopt  other  forms  of  faith. 
Lao-kiun,  sometimes  called  Lao-tseu,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first  who  introduced  foreign  belief  into  China. 
lie  was  cotemporary  with  Confucius,  and  founder  of  the 
sect  called  Tao-tse.  Tradition  reports  that  he  voluntarily 
renounced  the  advantages  of  rank,  and  retired  into  the 
solitude  of  the  forest,  in  the  Land  of  the  West ;  their  name 
for  India.  The  doctrines  he  taught  indicate  that  he  was 
a  Hindoo  devotee,  but  to  what  sect  he  belonged  is  unknown. 
He  believed  in  the  existence  of  One  Supreme  Being,  in- 
visible, eternal,  and  incomprehensible,  called  Tao,  which 
means  Reason,  or  Wisdom.  Successive  emanations  from 
him  were  subordinate  Spirits,  who  produced  the  world, 
and  governed  it  as  his  agents.  It  was  liis  favourite  maxim 
that  "  Tao  produced  one ;  one  produced  two ;  two  pro- 
duced a  third  ;  and  three  produced  all  things."  The  science 
of  Tao  was  the  means  of  arriving  at  felicity  and  perfect 
freedom.  This  science  could  be  obtained  by  severe  morti- 
fication of  the  body,  entire  subjection  of  the  passions,  and 
devout  contemplation.  AVhen  a  man  arrived  at  this  holy 
state,  he  was  an  immortal  while  he  yet  remained  upon  the 
earth.  It  was  believed  that  he  could  foretell  events,  fly 
through  the  air,  put  back  the  course  of  the  years,  and 
ascend  to  heaven  without  dying.  Lao-kiun  was  accus- 
tomed to  say:  "The  Holy  pronounced  these  words:  He 
that  takes  upon  himself  the  dust  and  filth  of  the  kingdom, 
shall  become  king  of  the  universe."  He  acquired  great 
reputation  for  sanctity,  and  marvellous  stories  were  told 
of  his  birth.    It  was  said  that  he  had  existed  from  all  eter- 


214  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

nitj  ;  that  he  descended  to  earth,  and  was  born  of  a  virgin, 
bUick  in  complexion,  described  "  marvellous  and  beautiful 
as  jasper  ;"  that  when  his  mission  of  benevolence  was  com- 
])leted,  he  ascended  bodily  alive  into  the  Paradise  above. 
His  statue  was  placed  in  the  emperor's  palace,  a  sj)lendid 
temple  was  erected  to  him,  and  he  was  worshipped  as  a 
god.  His  disciples  were  called,  "  Heavenly  Teachers." 
They  inculcated  great  tenderness  toward  animals,  and  con- 
sidered strict  celibacy  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  per- 
fect holiness. 

One  morning  a  book  filled  with  magical  formulas  and 
invocations  to  Spirits  was  found  suspended  on  the  principal 
gate  of  Pekin.  The  followers  of  Lao-kiun  said  it  had 
descended  from  heaven  in  the  night-time.  The  emperor 
Tchin-tsong,  being  among  the  converts  to  the  new  doctrine, 
went  on  foot  to  the  city  gate,  in  token  of  humility,  received 
the  volume  with  all  reverence,  enclosed  it  in  a  golden  box, 
and  carried  it  back  to  the  palace,  where  it  has  ever  since 
been  carefully  preserved,  as  the  oracle  of  the  sect,  under 
the  title  of  Tao-teking.  From  revelations  contained  in 
these  writings,  the  teachers  profess  to  know  how  to  cast 
out  Evil  Spirits  from  those  afflicted  with  diseases,  to  pre- 
dict events  from  the  aspect  of  the  stars,  and  make  gold  by 
some  mysterious  process  of  alchemy  and  magic.  They 
even  persuaded  one  of  the  emperors  that  they  had  dis- 
covered how  to  distil  a  liquor  which  would  confer  immortal 
life  on  whoever  drank  it.  The  teachers  of  this  sect  have 
great  influence  with  the  populace,  to  whom  they  sell  amu- 
lets to  preserve  them  from  evil,  and  innumerable  small 
images  of  Spirits,  and  of  saints  who  have  become  God. 
The  successors  of  Lao-kiun  are  always  honoured  with  the 
title  of  chief  Mandarins.  The  head  of  tiie  sect  resides  in  a 
magnificent  palace  in  the  district  of  Kiang-si.  A  great 
concourse  of  people,  among  whom  are  some  persons  of 
rank,  flock  thither  from  the  neighbouring  provinces,  to 
have  diseases  cured,  or  their  fortunes  told. 

Such  practices  have  always  been  ridiculed  by  the  school 
of  Confucius,  and  tlie  Court  of  Bites  has  uniformly  con- 


CHINA  AND   THIBET.  215 

demiied  them.  In  the  third  century  after  Confucius,  the 
emperor,  anno3^ed  by  the  power  thus  obtained  over  the 
credulous  multitude,  ordered  all  books  of  magic  to  be 
burned,  and  put  many  professors  of  it  to  death  ;  but  some 
of  the  writings  were  secretly  preserved,  and  afterward 
brought  to  light. 

A  new  religion  was  subsequently  introduced,  concerning 
which  the  following  traditions  are  preserved.  In  the 
twenty-fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tchao-Wang,  on  the 
eighth  day  of  the  moon,  a  light  from  the  south-west  illu- 
mined tlie  palace  of  the  king.  The  monarch  summoned 
sages  skilled  in  predicting  the  future,  and  inquired  the 
meaning  of  this  splendour.  They  showed  him  books 
wherein  it  was  prophesied  that  such  a  light  would  be  seen 
when  a  great  saint  was  born  in  the  West,  and  that  one 
thousand  years  after  his  birth,  his  religion  would  spread 
into  China.  This  was  one  thousand  and  twenty-nine  years 
before  Christ.  Sixtj^-five  years  after  Christ,  the  emperor 
Ming-ti  dreamed  that  a  man  ten  feet  high,  of  the  colour  of 
gold,  and  glittering  like  the  sun,  entered  his  palace,  and 
said:  "My  religion  will  spread  over  these  parts."  When 
the  sages  were  consulted,  they  opened  the  annals  of  the 
empire  and  showed  him  how  his  dream  corresponded  with 
the  prophecy  which  had  been  read  to  Tchao-Wang  a  thou- 
sand years  before.  He  was  so  much  impressed  by  the 
coincidence,  that  he  immediately  sent  ambassadors  to  India, 
with  directions  to  seek  for  the  Holy  One,  and  not  return 
until  they  found  him.  These  messengers  encountered  some 
of  the  disciples  of  Bouddha  Sakia,  and  brought  back  his 
Sacred  Books,  with  teachers  to  explain  them.  The  doc- 
trines of  this  sect  have  been  described  in  the  chapter  on 
Hindostan.  They  have  been  very  generally  adopted  in 
China,  where  Bouddha  is  known  under  the  name  of  the 
God  Fo.  Five  centuries  after  the  introduction  of  this 
religion,  there  were  three  thousand  temples  of  Fo  in  the 
Chinese  empire,  and  the  emperor  himself  was  so  attached 
to  the  new  faith,  that  he  resigned  the  government  into  the 
hands  of  his  adopted  son,  that  he  might  withdraw  from  all 


216  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

worldly  affairs,  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  meditation 
on  divine  things. 

In  one  of  the  Sacred  Books  brought  by  the  ambassadors, 
Bouddha  is  understood  to  refer  to  a  master  more  ancient 
than  himself,  called  by  the  Cliinese  Om-i-io,  and  by  the 
Japanese  Am-i-da.  It  is  said  this  name,  in  Sanscrit,  sig- 
nifies The  Infinite.  It  is  apparentl}^  a  variation  of  Om, 
which  Hindoos  hold  so  peculiarly  sacred  as  the  Word 
which  issued  from  the  mouth  of  Brahma,  and  produced  all 
things.  In  China,  it  is  written  thousands  and  thousands 
of  times  on  all  their  holy  places.  In  their  prayers,  they 
pronounce  it  with  Fo,  believing  they  can  thus  obtain  re- 
mission of  sins. 

Phu-sa,  a  follower  of  Bouddha,  who  lived  early  in  our 
fourth  century,  is  worshipped  in  China,  as  one  of  those 
saints  who  had  become  a  Spirit  of  Light,  and  voluntarily 
descended  to  earth  again  from  motives  of  benevolence.  He 
is  called  "The  son  of  Bouddha,  born  of  his  mouth,"  because 
his  allegorical  writings  are  supposed  to  have  perfected  the 
doctrines  of  his  master.  Bodhidhorma,  another  of  his  fol- 
lowers, who  fled  from  persecution  in  Hindostan,  in  our  fifth 
century,  took  refuge  in  China,  where  he  was  received  with 
distinguished  favour  by  the  emperor,  and  became  his 
spiritual  teacher.  His  name  is  held  in  religious  veneration, 
and  his  office  of  imperial  counsellor  was  the  origin  of  an 
order  of  priests  still  existing,  called  Spiritual  Princes  of 
the  Law. 

The  emperors  of  the  Tartar  dynasty  have  all  embraced 
Lamaism,  a  branch  of  Buddhism,  which  will  be  presently 
explained.  But  whatever  may  be  their  personal  predilec- 
tions, the  law  obliges  them  to  conform  to  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  ancient  Sacred  Books  of  China, 
in  common  with  all  magistrates  and  public  officers.  The 
festivals  of  the  old  religion  are  scrupulously  observed 
p]very  n(;w  emperor  guides  the  plough  with  his  own  hands, 
to  rais(!  grain  for  an  offi-ring  to  Chang-ti.  At  the  winter 
solstice,  the  last  week  in  December,  and  the  summer 
solstice,  the  last  week  in  June,  all  the  shops  are  shut  up, 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  217 

the  courts  are  closed,  and  no  person  is  permitted  to  begin 
a  long  journey.  The  religious  solemnities  celebrated  at 
those  seasons  are  called  Festivals  of  Gratitude  to  Tien.  At 
the  spring  equinox,  they  set  apart  a  day  to  implore  the 
blessing  of  Tien  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  At  the 
autumnal  equinox,  they  offer  the  first-fruits  of  the  harvest, 
and  return  thanks. 

Though  the  worship  of  Fo  has  been  the  prevailing 
religion  of  all  parts  of  the  Chinese  empire  for  more  than 
fifteen  hundred  years,  it  has  never  gained  favour  with  a 
majority  of  their  learned  men,  who  are  mostly  of  the  school 
of  Confucius.  One  of  them  argues  thus :  "  This  person,  so 
cried  up,  who  has  come  out  of  the  West  into  China,  passed, 
as  they  say,  nine  years  on  a  mountain,  in  continual  contem- 
plation. He  remained  immoveable,  with  his  eyes  fixed 
upon  the  wall,  without  changing  his  position.  Suppose 
every  private  person  should  take  it  into  his  head  to  follow 
this  example,  who  would  take  care  of  cultivating  the  fields, 
and  making  the  useful  products  of  the  loom?  Whence 
would  they  have  garments,  and  food  to  support  life?  Can 
it  be  imagined  that  a  doctrine  whose  practice,  if  it  were 
universal,  would  put  the  whole  empire  in  confusion,  is  the 
true  doctrine  ?"  A  letter  from  one  of  them,  addressed  to 
the  emperor,  says:  "If  the  worship  of  Fo  is  tolerated,  the 
people  will  go  by  hundreds  to  give  their  money  and  cloth- 
ing to  the  priests;  and  I  fear  that  young  and  old  will  finish 
by  entirely  neglecting  their  occupations.  If  you  do  not 
forbid  these  things,  there  will  soon  be  persons  who  will 
mutilate  their  members  to  offer  them  to  Fo,  thus  destroy- 
ing our  morality,  and  exciting  the  ridicule  of  people  around 
us."  Another  writes  thus  to  a  believer  in  the  popular 
doctrines :  "  If  you  do  not  burn  paper  in  honour  of  Fo,  if 
you  do  not  place  offerings  upon  his  altar,  he  will  be  angry 
with  you,  and  make  punishment  fall  on  your  heads.  Your 
god  Fo  must  then  be  a  miserable  creature." 

But  these  are  merely  the  opinions  of  the  learned.  The 
populace  have  always  been  so  attached  to  the  religion  of 
Fo,  that  the  Court  of  Eites  have  deemed  it  prudent  to  ex- 

VOL.    I.— 19  K 


218  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

press  no  opinion  against  it.  When  they  meet  annually  at 
Pekin,  they  merely  condemn  heresy  in  general  terms,  and 
leave  the  people  free  to  follow  their  own  opinions,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  infringe  upon  any  of  the  established 
laws  of  the  empire.  Many,  who  consider  themselves  dis- 
ciples of  Confucius,  have  mixed  his  maxims  with  various 
ideas  borrowed  from  the  Sacred  Books  of  Fo.  The  women 
are  almost  universally  attached  to  the  popular  worship. 
They  have  an  altar  in  the  most  honourable  part  of  the 
house,  covered  with  gilded  images  of  gods  and  saints ;  and 
not  unfrequently  husbands,  who  profess  the  old  conserva- 
tive faith  of  China,  are  seen  bowing  the  knee  to  these 
household  deities.  One  of  the  most  universal  of  these 
images  is  that  of  Shing  Mou,  the  Mother  Goddess ;  the 
same  title  bestowed  by  ancient  Egyptians  on  Isis  with  her 
infant  Ilorus.  It  represents  a  woman  with  a  glory  round 
her  head,  and  a  babe  in  her  arms,  or  seated  on  her  knee 
Tradition  describes  her  as  a  virgin,  who  conceived  by  sim- 
ple contact  with  a  water-lily.  The  child,  exposed  in  his 
inf^ancy,  was  found  and  brought  up  by  poor  fishermen. 
He  became  a  great  man,  and  performed  wonderful  miracles. 
In  wealthy  houses,  the  sacred  image  of  the  Mother  Goddess 
is  carefully  kept  in  a  recess  behind  the  altar,  veiled  with  a 
silken  screen. 

Every  Chinese  believes  he  has  an  attendant  Spirit,  his 
own  peculiar  guardian.  An  image  of  it  is  kept  in  the 
house  and  worshipped  three  times  a  day,  with  prayers,  and 
the  fragrant  incense  of  sandal  wood.  Sun,  moon,  fire,  water, 
earth,  and  every  department  of  nature,  has  a  presiding 
deity.  So  has  each  trade  and  profession.  Homage  is  often 
paid  to  some  high  mountain,  or  remarkably  large  tree,  from 
tlie  idea  that  a  powerful  Spirit  resides  therein.  The  image 
of  a  great  Dragon,  or  monstrous  Serpent,  occurs  everywhere 
in  their  temples,  and  on  domestic  altars.  They  say  it  lives 
in  the  sky,  and  has  great  influence  over  the  affairs  of  men. 
Originally  it  doubtless  represented  the  constelkition  of  the 
Serpent,  and  they  preserve  this  fragmentary  form  of  the 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  219 

old  astronomical  religion  of  India,  Chaldca,  and  Egypt, 
without  understanding  the  idea  it  embodied. 

According  to  the  statements  of  ^Jesuit  missionaries  in 
China,  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls  some- 
times  manifests  itself  in  singular  results.  Father  Le  Comto 
says:  "  One  day  two  priests  of  Fo  passing  the  dwelling  of 
a  rich  peasant  saw  three  large  ducks  before  the  door. 
They  immediately  stopped  before  the  house  and  began  to 
weep  bitterly.  The  peasant's  wife  came  out  to  inquire  the 
cause  of  their  grief  They  replied :  '  We  know  that  the 
souls  of  our  fathers  have  passed  into  those  creatures,  and 
the  fear  that  you  may  kill  them  renders  us  wretched.' 
The  woman  promised  they  should  be  carefully  tended,  and 
neither  killed  nor  sold.  J3ut  they  answered :  '  Perhaps 
your  husband  may  not  be  so  compassionate  as  you  are ; 
and  if  any  accident  should  happen,  it  would  be  a  great 
affliction  to  us.'  After  some  further  conversation,  the 
woman  felt  such  sympathy  with  their  filial  anxiety,  that  she 
gave  them  the  ducks." 

The  same  writer  says  :  "  They  called  upon  me  one  day 
to  baptize  a  sick  person,  an  old  man  of  seventy,  who  lived 
upon  a  small  pension  given  him  by  the  emperor.  When 
1  entered  his  room,  he  said  :  '  I  thank  you.  Father,  that 
you  are  going  to  deliver  me  from  a  heavy  punishment.' 
I  replied :  '  That  is  not  all.  Baptism  not  only  saves  people 
from  hell,  but  conducts  them  to  a  life  of  blessedness.'  'I 
do  not  comprehend  what  you  say,'  rejoined  the  invalid ; 
'  and  perhaps  I  have  not  sufficiently  explained  myself  I 
have  for  some  time  past  lived  on  the  emperor's  benevolence. 
The  priests,  who  are  well  acquainted  with  what  happens  to 
the  soul  after  death,  assure  me  that  I  shall  be  obliged  to 
repay  tlie  emperor's  generosity  by  becoming  a  post-horse 
to  bring  despatches  from  the  provinces  to  court.  They 
exhort  me  to  perform  my  duty  well,  when  I  assume  this 
new  form  of  being,  and  to  take  care  not  to  stumble,  or 
wince,  or  bite.  They  tell  me  if  I  travel  well,  eat  little, 
and  am  patient,  I  may  by  that  means  excite  the  compassion 
of  the  deities,  who  often  convert  a  good  beast  into  a  man 


220  PROGRESS   OF    RKLIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  qualit}^,  and  make  him  a  considerable  Mandarin.  I 
cannot  tliink  of  all  this  without  trembling.  Sometimes  I 
dream  that  I  am  harnessed,  and  ready  to  set  out  at  the 
first  stroke  of  the  rider.  I  then  wake  in  a  sweat,  and  am 
very  unhappy,  not  being  able  to  determine  whether  I  am 
a  man  or  a  horse.  Alas  !  what  will  become  of  me,  when 
I  shall  be  a  horse  in  reality?  Tliey  tell  me.  Father,  that 
people  of  your  religion  are  not  subject  to  such  miseries ; 
that  men  continue  to  be  men  in  the  next  world,  as  they 
are  in  tliis.  I  beseech  you  to  receive  me  among  you.  I 
am  ready  to  embrace  your  religion  ;  for,  whatever  it  may 
cost  me,  I  had  rather  be  a  Christian  than  become  a  beast." 
The  Jesuit  Father  baptized  him,  and  the  poor  old  man  de- 
parted from  this  life  happy  in  the  belief  that  he  should 
not  be  obliged  to  reappear  on  earth  in  the  form  of  a  post- 
horse. 

In  some  places  assemblies  of  women  are  held,  to  perforin 
certain  religious  ceremonies  as  a  preparation  for  death.  A 
venerable  old  priest  comes  to  preside  over  the  meeting. 
He  arranges  the  sacred  images,  and  covers  the  walls  of  the 
house  with  paintings  representing  the  various  torments  of 
the  wicked  after  they  leave  the  body.  He  sings  anthems 
to  Fo,  while  the  women  strike  small  kettles  at  intervals, 
and  devoutly  repeat  the  names  of  Omi-to  and  Fo.  These 
festivals  continue  seven  days,  during  which  their  principal 
care  is  to  prepare  and  consecrate  treasures  for  the  other 
world.  They  build  small  houses  with  paper,  and  fill  them 
with  a  great  number  of  boxes  ])ainted  and  gilded.  In  these 
boxes  they  put  iiundreds  of  little  rolls  of  gold  and  silver 
pnpcr.  They  secure  them  with  padlocks  of  paper,  and 
fasten  the  house  carefully.  When  the  person  who  made 
the  house  dies,  they  burn  it,  with  all  its  chests  and  keys, 
with  many  solemn  ceremonials,  for  which  the  priests  are 
paid.  Tiiey  believe  the  house  will  become  a  real  house  in 
the  other  world,  and  the  rolls  of  paper  will  become  genuine 
ingots  of  gold  and  silver.  In  the  house  they  expect  to 
reside,  and  with  the  treasures  they  hope  to  propitiate  the 
eighteen  guardians  of  souls  in  the  regions  of  the  dead. 


CHINA   AND   THIBET,  221 

With  a  view  to  laying  up  a  store  of  rcligioiis  merit,  tliej 
rei)eat  many  prayers,  and  make  many  genuflexions  before 
images;  for  the  due  performance  of  which  the  priests  give 
them  sealed  certificates,  varying  in  price,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. These  certificates  are  placed  in  a  box,  which 
is  sealed  up  when  the  person  dies,  and  is  carried  to  the 
funeral  with  much  ceremony.  They  call  it  Lou-in,  which 
signifies  a  passport  for  travelling  from  one  world  to 
another. 

They  annually  publish  astronomical  calculations  of  the 
motions  of  the  planets,  for  every  hour  and  minute  of  the 
year.  They  consider  it  important  to  be  very  exact,  because 
tlie  hours,  and  even  the  minutes,  are  lucky  or  unlucky, 
according  to  the  aspect  of  the  stars.  Some  days  are  con- 
sidered peculiarly  fortunate  for  marrying,  or  beginning  to 
build  a  house  ;  and  the  gods  are  better  pleased  with  sacri- 
fice offered  at  certain  hours,  than  they  are  with  the  same 
ceremony  performed  at  other  times. 

The  doctrines  of  Fo,  and  the  ritual  of  his  worship,  are 
contained  in  an  old  book,  called  Kio,  which  his  numerous 
followers  receive  as  sacred.  An  immense  number  of  com- 
mentaries have  been  written  upon  it.  It  is  said  there  is 
likewise  a  very  ancient  book  in  China,  called  Yekim,  attri- 
buted to  Fo  himself;  but  it  is  written  in  hieroglyphics,  and 
cannot  be  deciphered.  All  their  holy  books,  and  religious 
formulas,  are  written  in  a  sacred  language,  called  Pali, 
bearing  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the  Sanscrit. 


It  is  supposed  to  have  been  about  four  hundred  years 
after  the  Christian  era,  that  a  holy  hermit  went  from  India 
and  established  himself  on  a  mountain  in  Central  Thibet, 
thenceforth  called  Bouddha  La,  which  signifies  the  Moun- 
tain of  Bouddha.  He  soon  attracted  numerous  disciples, 
wlio  listened  reverently  to  his  teachings.  Such  was  his 
reputation  for  holiness,  that  after  his  death  tlie  belief  pre- 
vailed that  he  was  Bouddha  himself,  who  had  again  de- 
scended from  Paradise,  and  assumed  the  form  of  a  pious 
Vol.  I.— 19* 


222  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

anchorite,  in  order  to  effect  the  salvation  of  the  people  of 
Thibet.  He  taught  them  their  forms  of  prayer,  and  left 
them  a  book  called,  "  The  Body  of  Doctrine,"  ascribed  to 
Bouddha,  and  also  some  works  of  his  own,  which  are  held 
in  great  veneration.  These,  and  all  the  other  Sacred 
Books  of  Eastern  Asia,  are  written  in  a  modification  of 
Sanscrit. 

The  worship  of  Bouddha  remained  confined  to  the 
region  about  Bouddha  La  until  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
nine  years  after  Christ,  when  prince  Srong  Dsan  Gambo, 
the  founder  of  Thibetian  greatness,  married  a  princess  of 
China,  and  a  pr'incess  of  Nepal,  both  educated  in  that 
religion.  They  brought  with  them  images  of  Fo,  Sacred 
Books  and  relics,  and  caused  a  great  number  of  temples 
and  buildings  for  devotees  to  be  erected.  The  king  estab- 
lished himself  on  the  sacred  mountain,  called  Bouddha 
La,  around  which  soon  grew  up  the  city  of  Lassa,  the 
present  capital  of  Thibet.  This  popular  prince,  who  had 
achieved  so  much  for  the  prosperity  of  his  countr3\  was 
believed  to  be  the  identical  old  saint,  who  more  than  two 
hundred  years  before  had  taught  on  Bouddha  La,  and  who 
had  now  come  back  again  into  a  human  body,  to  establish 
his  religion  permanently  in  Thibet.  Sects  arose  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  new  doctrines,  either  from  attachment  to  some 
older  form  of  faith,  or  from  jealousy  of  the  priestly  power. 
Once  the  new  religion  was  nearly  overturned  in  a  civil 
war  between  two  rival  brothers,  contending  for  the  throne, 
one  in  favour  of  Buddhism,  and  the  other  opposed  to  it. 
It  suffered  vai'ious  vicissitudes  until  the  close  of  our  ele- 
venth century,  when  a  son  of  the  reigning  monarch  became 
a  devotee  of  that  religion,  and  his  father  made  him  Superior 
of  a  monastery  built  for  him.  He  afterward  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  and  was  the  first  one  in  that  country  who  united 
in  himself  llic  ollices  of  High  Priest  and  King.  He  also 
was  declared  to  be  the  renowned  old  hermit  of  Bouddha 
La,  who  had  reap[)eared  on  earth  yet  again  to  govern  his 
bi'lovcd  Thibet. 

^riiis  was  tin;  origin  of  that   form  of  Buddhism  called 


CHINA  AND   THIBET.  223 

Lamaism.  Lama  means  Pastor  of  Souls,  and  is  the  name 
applied  to  all  the  priests.  Dalai  Latna,  or  Grand  Laina, 
means  the  Great  ]*astor,  the  Supreme  Pontiff",  who  is  at  the 
head  of  all  ecclesiastical  and  civil  affairs  in  Thibet.  The 
highest  object  of  worship  is  Shigemooni,  which  is  tlieir 
variation  of  the  name  of  Bouddha  Sakia  Mouni.  The  next 
is  his  disciple,  the  famous  old  hermit  of  Bouddha  La,  whose 
soul  is  supposed  to  be  regularly  transmitted  through  tlie 
succeeding  Grand  Lamas  of  Thibet,  to  watch  over  tlic 
people,  whom  he  loved  so  well  that  he  left  Paradise  to  in- 
struct them  in  the  true  religion.  When  the  Grand  Lama 
dies,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  into  what  body  his  soul  has 
passed.  This  can  be  done  only  by  other  Lamas,  who  fast 
and  pray,  and  perform  various  ceremonies,  to  be  guided 
aright.  Those  who  think  there  are  signs  of  his  having  ap- 
peared in  their  family,  give  information  of  it  to  the  proper 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  names  of  the  candidates  are 
written  on  little  golden  fish,  which  are  shaken  in  an  urn, 
and  the  first  one  taken  out  is  proclaimed  Grand  Lama.  He 
is  carried  to  Lassa  in  triumphal  procession,  all  the  people 
prostrating  themselves  before  him  as  he  passes  along. 
Disputes  have  sometimes  arisen  concerning  the  succession, 
and  in  some  cases  there  have  been  blood}^  wars,  causing 
the  destruction  of  whole  villages.  But  the  belief  remains 
deeply  rooted  that  the  immortal  head  of  the  church,  by 
miraculous  transmission  of  his  soul,  is  always  visibly  present 
in  the  person  of  the  Grand  Lama,  wlio  is  both  pope  and 
king.  He  is  regarded  as  the  vicegerent  of  God,  with 
power  to  dispense  divine  blessings  on  whomsoever  he  will, 
either  directly,  or  through  the  medium  of  subordinate 
Lamas.  It  is  said  fountains  will  flow  at  his  command, 
even  in  the  most  parched  deserts;  that  flowers  spring  up 
wherever  his  feet  have  passed,  and  that  his  person  exhale^^ 
celestial  fragrance.  He  is  supposed  to  see  and  know 
everything,  even  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  heart,  so 
that  he  never  has  occasion  to  inquire  on  any  subject.  He 
is  called,  "The  Immaculate,"  "The  active  Creator  and 
Governor   of   the   present  World,"   "He  who   has   clair- 


224  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

voyant  eyes,"  "  The  Word  which  produced  the  World." 
Thibet,  China,  the  Mongols,  and  the  Calmuck  Tartars,  nc 
knowledge  his  sway.  Crowds  of  pilgrims  come  with  offer- 
ings from  all  quarters,  to  pay  him  homage,  and  obtain  his 
blessing.  Princes  make  the  same  prostrations  and  perform 
the  same  ceremonies  as  pilgrims  of  the  meanest  rank.  He 
receives  them  seated  on  a  splendid  divan,  in  the  attitude 
of  the  sacred  images.  He  treats  no  one  with  more  respect 
than  another.  He  never  rises,  or  uncovers  his  head,  or 
salutes  any  one ;  but  merely  lays  his  hand  on  the  head  of 
the  worshipper,  who  believes  he  has  thereby  obtained 
pardon  for  his  sins.  He  sometimes  distributes  little  pieces 
of  consecrated  dough,  which  are  used  for  amulets  to  charm 
away  Evil  Spirits.  At  stated  seasons  he  visits  some  of  the 
great  theological  establishments,  to  expound  the  Sacred 
Books,  and  his  expositions  are  received  as  divine  authority. 
On  state  occasions,  he  wears  a  yellow  mitre,  and  a  purple 
silk  mantle  fastened  on  the  breast  with  a  clasp.  In  his 
hand  he  carries  a  long  staff  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Though 
Thibet  is  politically  subject  to  China,  the  Chinese  empe- 
ror is  subject  to  the  Grand  Lama  in  all  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters. 

There  are  two  other  Lamas  in  Eastern  Asia,  believed  to 
be  incarnations  of  Bouddha,  receiving  his  soul,  or  portions 
of  it,  by  a  similar  process  of  transmission  from  generation 
to  generation  ;  but  their  holiness  is  of  inferior  degree,  and 
they  are  in  all  respects  subordinate  to  the  Grand  Lama  at 
Lassa.  It  is  a  very  common  thing  for  persons  belonging 
to  the  religious  orders  to  be  regarded  as  resuscitations  of 
deceased  saints.  These  are  distinguished  by  the  epithet 
"twice  born,"  or  "thrice  born." 

The  powerful  hierarchy,  of  which  the  Grand  Lama  is 
the  head,  consists  of  various  ranks  and  classes.  A  High 
Lama  is  sent  as  nuncio  to  the  Court  of  China,  and  supported 
there.  Tiicre  is  an  order  called  Spiritual  Princes  of  the 
Law,  and  Masters  of  the  Kingdom ;  these  are  the  confi- 
dential advisers  of  the  em|)erors.  There  are  many  largo 
theological  establishments  called  Lamaseries,  exceedingly 


CIIIXA   AND   THIBET.  225 

similar  to  tho  monasteries  in  Eni-ope,  The  origin  and 
growth  of  these  assoeintions  may  be  briefly  stated.  It  has 
already  been  said  that  in  very  aneient  times  Hindoo  de- 
votees, in  order  to  attain  perfect  lioHness,  withdrew  from 
the  world,  and  vowed  themselves  to  chastity  and  poverty. 
The  fiime  of  their  sanctity  attracted  disciples,  many  of 
whom  lived  in  grottoes  or  cells,  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
teacher,  thus  forming  a  brotherhood  of  saints.  When  a 
distinct  order  of  priests  grew  out  of  this  beginning,  young 
men  and  boys  were  sent  into  the  forest  to  be  educated  by 
them  f()r  the  priesthood.  These  were  temporary  associa- 
tions, which  dispersed  with  change  of  circumstances.  But 
the  followers  of  Bouddha,  being  placed  in  opposition  to  the 
orthodox  Hindoo  religion,  and  relentlessly  persecuted  by 
its  priests,  naturally  sought  support  and  consolation  by 
living  together  in  congregations.  As  they  were  all  de- 
votees in  the  beginning,  they  naturally  adopted  a  regular 
routine  of  prayers  and  ceremonies,  as  their  models,  the 
Hindoo  hermits,  had  done.  Afterward,  when  whole  nations 
adopted  their  faith,  the  worldly  gave  up  the  entire  manage- 
ment of  religious  affairs  to  them.  Thus  they  became  a 
new  order  of  priests,  whose  appropriate  business  it  was  to 
educate  successors  to  the  offices  they  held.  Bouddha's 
greatest  offence  against  the  orthodox  Bramins  was  that  he 
opened  the  religious  life  to  all  castes  and  all  nations.  He 
is  represented  as  saying:  "All  men  are  equal;  and  my 
doctrines  are  a  favour  and  grace  to  all  mankind."  This  was 
a  fruitful  source  of  reproach  ^^■ith  the  Brainins,  who  were 
wont  to  say,  contemptuously  :  "  He  and  his  followers  teach 
even  mean  and  criminal  men,  and  receive  them  most  im- 
properly into  a  state  of  grace,"  Wherever  his  doctrines 
]>revail,  there  is  no  hereditary  priesthood,  and  the  only 
distinctions  are  those  which  arise  from  difference  of  char- 
acter. Women,  also,  were  included  in  his  unpopular  doc- 
trines of  emancipation  from  the  laws  of  caste.  His  followers 
could  not  overcome  the  prejudices  of  their  native  country 
in  this  respect,  but  in  China  and  Thibet  there  are  nany 
associations  of  devout  women,  gt)verned  by  the  same  law? 

K* 


226  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

that  regulate  the  Lamaseries.  Such  establishments  are 
under  the  spiritual  direction  of  a  man,  there  being  no 
such  claes  of  women  as  the  ancient  priestesses,  or  modern 
abbesses.  There  were  formerly  convents  of  women  in  the 
Birman  Empire,  but  government  suppressed  them  as  pre- 
judicial to  population.  Only  old  women  are  allowed  to 
devote  themselves  to  a  life  of  celibacy.  They  shave  their 
hair  and  wear  white  robes.  They  at  first  lived  in  the  same 
building  with  men  who  had  vowed  themselves  to  a  re- 
ligious life,  but  to  prevent  immoralities  they  were  afterward 
divided  into  separate  establishments.  These  women  keep 
the  temples  in  order,  accompany  funerals,  bring  water 
for  ceremonies  of  purification,  and  other  similar  offices. 
Women  in  Buddhist  countries,  as  in  all  parts  of  Asia,  are 
in  an  enslaved  condition.  Polygamy  is  allowed,  and  the 
v/ealthy  sometimes  have  harems. 

In  the  Lamaseries  there  is  a  complicated  division  of 
ranks,  each  with  appropriate  duties,  and  all  are  bound  to 
obey  the  Superior  implicitly.  It  is  common  to  place 
children  of  five  or  six  years  old  in  Lamaseries,  where  they 
learn  to  read  and  write,  and  perform  various  services  about 
the  house.  At  twenty-one  years  of  age  they  can  be  re- 
ceived into  the  brotherhood,  after  examination.  On  these 
occasions  the  candidate  is  required  to  affirm  solemnly  that 
he  is  of  the  required  age,  that  he  was  born  in  wedlock,  that 
he  has  consent  of  parents,  is  in  debt  to  no  one,  free  from 
hereditary  disease  or  bodily  defect,  not  sprung  from  a  race 
of  dwarfs  or  giants,  and  not  under  the  influence  of  sor- 
cerers, or  Evil  Spirits  from  the  woods  and  mountains. 
These  preliminaries  being  settled,  the  parents  give  a  feast. 
Afterward,  the  young  man  shaves  his  head,  and  in  token 
of  renouncing  old  ties,  he  drops  his  name  and  takes  an- 
other. If  asked  to  what  country  he  belongs,  he  replies: 
"I  have  no  country.  I  spend  my  time  in  such  or  such  a 
Lamasery."  Every  one  is  free  to  quit,  whenever  he  judges 
it  best  to  return  to  the  world.  Each  member  brin<j;s  with 
him  a  cup,  pitclier,  dish,  and  mat  to  sleep  on.  They  are 
forbidden  to  kindle  a  fire  to  prepare  food  for  themselves. 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  227 

They  must  depend  on  the  offerings  of  the  charitable,  or 
what  they  can  gain  by  begging.  Mendicants  are  generally 
sent  out  into  the  environs  once  a  week,  but  they  are  nol 
allowed  to  demand  anything,  or  to  manifest  any  dis- 
content when  they  are  refused.  They  all  take  their  meals 
together,  it  not  being  permitted  to  eat  alone.  They  must 
not  swallow  food  after  sundown,  or  have  a  light  in  the 
evening,  for  fear  of  destroying  some  insect  thereby.  Some 
of  the  Lamas  are  so  scrupulous  on  this  point,  that  when 
they  ride  they  are  constantly  turning  their  horses  this  way 
and  that,  to  avoid  trampling  on  some  insect  or  reptile.  If 
they  chance  to  kill  one,  they  fast  and  pray,  and  perform 
various  ceremonies  to  atone  for  it.  The  more  enlightened 
Lamas  say  they  approve  of  such  precautions,  not  because  a 
human  soul  may  have  transmigrated  into  the  animal,  but 
because  men  of  prayer,  who  seek  to  live  in  communion 
with  the  Deit}^,  ought  to  be  merciful  and  gentle  toward  all 
things.  Though  not  allowed  to  kill  any  creature,  they  are 
permitted  to  eat  the  flesh  of  an  animal  that  came  to  its 
death  by  accident.  The  laity  in  most  Buddhist  countries 
are  not  so  scrupulous  on  this  point,  and  if  meat  is  offered 
to  religious  mendicants,  they  can  often  be  induced  to  eat 
it,  by  assurances  that  the  animal  was  not  killed  with  the 
intention  of  offering  it  to  them.  What  remains  of  their 
meals  is  not  allowed  to  be  reserved ;  it  must  be  distributed 
.to  the  poor,  or  to  strangers,  or  to  the  youths  who  attend 
the  school,  or  even  to  animals.  Consequently,  these  estab- 
lishments are  always  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  beggars. 
Inmates  of  the  highest  rank  are  as  simple  in  dress  and  food 
as  the  lowest.  The  men  are  expressly  forbidden  to  pass  a 
night  in  the  buildings  appropriated  to  women,  and  women 
are  not  allowed  to  remain  over  night  in  any  of  the  Lama- 
series. If  the  vow  of  perpetual  chastity  is  violated,  the 
culprit  is  severely  punished,  and  for  a  second  offence  ex- 
pelled. It  is  said  their  manners  are  generally  pure,  which 
is  more  likely  to  be  the  case  from  their  freedom  to  return 
to  a  worldly  mode  of  life  whenever  they  choose.  Among 
the  Birmans,  the  violation  of  their  vow  of  chastity  is  pun- 


228  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ished  by  death  in  the  flames.  The  Sacred  Books  are  very 
emphatic  on  this  point.  In  the  "  Fort3^-Two  Points  of  In- 
struction," it  is  said:  "Bouddlia,  the  Supreme  of  Beings, 
manifesting  his  doctrine,  pronounced  these  words :  There 
is  no  passion  more  violent  than  voluptuousness.  Happily 
there  is  but  one  such  passion.  If  there  were  two,  not  a 
man  in  the  whole  universe  could  follow  the  truth." 

"  Beware  of  fixing  your  eyes  upon  women !  If  you 
find  yourself  in  their  company,  let  it  be  as  though  you 
were  not  present.  If  you  speak  with  them,  guard  well 
your  hearts.  Let  your  conduct  be  irreproachable.  Keep 
ever  saying  to  yourselves:  We  Lamas,  while  we  live  in 
this  world  of  corruption,  must  be  like  the  "Water  Lily, 
which  immersed  in  mud  contracts  no  stain." 

"The  man  who  walks  in  the  path  of  holiness  must  re- 
member that  the  passions  are  as  dry  grass  near  a  great  fire. 
He  who  is  jealous  of  his  virtue,  should  flee  on  the  first 
approach  of  the  passions." 

"The  man  who,  striving  after  holiness,  endeavours  to 
extirpate  the  roots  of  his  passions,  is  like  one  passing  the 
beads  of  a  rosary  through  his  fingers.  By  taking  one  bead 
after  another,  he  easily  attains  the  end ;  so  by  conquering 
evil  tendencies,  one  by  one,  the  soul  attains  to  perfec- 
tion." 

Buddhists  are  not  much  addicted  to  self  tortures,  which 
prevail  so  extensively  in  Hindostan.  Celibacy  and  fre- 
quent fasts  are  the  chief  penances  the  religious  impose 
upon  themselves.  But  though  they  rarely  follow  tlio 
example  of  Bouddha  in  severe  bodily  inflictions,  they  arc 
prone  to  imitate  his  habits  of  profound  contemplation.  At 
such  times,  they  say  his  body  remained  perfectly  motion- 
less, and  his  senses  unaffected  by  any  external  object.  He 
then  became  a  rcjipient  of  divine  revelations,  which  he 
communicated  to  his  disciples.  Those  among  his  followers, 
who  arc  desirous  to  obtain  similar  supernatural  gifts,  con- 
secrate a  large  portion  of  their  time  to  profound  meditation. 
Some  of  the  Lamas  become  hermits,  living  in  the  holes 
of  rocks,  or  in  small  wooden  cells  fastened  to  the  sides  of 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  229 

mountains.  In  some  instances,  these  places  are  so  inac- 
cessible, that  food  can  be  conveyed  to  them  only  by  means 
of  a  bag  let  down  with  a  long  rope.  Some  inhabit  gloomy 
and  almost  impenetrable  forests,  infested  with  tigers  and 
sei'pents.  Some  of  them  live  in  communities  in  the  deserts, 
or  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  each  one  in  a  little  cave,  or 
wooden  cell.  In  some  of  these  associations,  it  is  part  of 
their  daily  ceremonies  to  scourge  themselves  with  a  small 
whip.  They  consider  this  as  an  expiation  for  sins,  which 
will  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  sufferings  in  another  stage  of 
existence.  Some  live  on  lonely  islands,  which  can  be  ap- 
proached only  in  winter,  on  the  ice.  At  that  inclement 
season,  the  devout  often  carry  them  tea,  butter,  and  rice, 
and  receive  in  return  blessings  and  prayers,  which  are 
believed  to  be  very  efficacious  in  producing  fruitful  pas- 
tures and  numerous  flocks. 

The  Buddhists  have  in  their  temples  many  images  of 
saints,  who  are  believed  to  have  obeyed  the  following  pre- 
cept of  their  Sacred  Books,  and  to  have  obtained  the  reward 
it  promises:  "Annihilate  thyself;  for  as  soon  as  thou 
ceasest  to  be  thyself,  thou  wilt  become  one  with  God^  and 
return  into  his  being."  Innumerable  are  the  miiacles 
ascribed  to  these  saints,  and  to  others  who  follow  their 
example.  Their  garments,  and  the  staffs  with  which  they 
walk,  are  supposed  to  imbibe  some  mysterious  power,  and 
blessed  are  they  who  are  allowed  to  touch  them.  It  is  a 
great  branch  of  business  in  the  Lamaseries  to  make  images 
of  the  saints,  and  consecrate  them  to  sell  to  devotees. 
Images  of  Bouddha  hitnself  of  course  rank  above  all  others. 
Great  is  the  merit  of  him  who  causes  one  to  be  made,  and 
presents  it  to  a  temple.  The  priesthood  have  a  tradition 
that  Bouddha  promised  whoever  consecrated  an  image  to 
hiin  should  never  go  to  any  of  the  hells,  or  be  born  a  slave 
or  a  woman,  or  be  subject  to  blindness,  deafness,  or  any 
deformity.  Worshippers  implore  the  intercession  of  saints 
to  obtain  forgiveness  or  blessings  for  them  ;  and  there  are 
many  marvellous  accounts  of  the  images  bowing  their 
heads,  and  moving  their  lips,  or  eyes,  in  answer  to  such 
Vol    1.— 20 


230  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

prayers.  Temples  are  often  built  in  lionour  of  saints,  and 
their  relics  deposited  in  the  most  sacred  part  of  the  build- 
ing. These  are  believed  to  have  the  same  power  to  work 
miracles  which  the  saint  liimself  possessed.  Therefore, 
places  where  the  most  celebrated  relics  are  preserved, 
attract  crowds  of  pilgrims.  In  a  temple  at  Ceylon  is  a 
tooth  said  to  have  been  Bouddha's.  It  is  kept  in  a  golden 
case  set  with  gems,  and  the  case  is  enclosed  within  four 
others,  all  covered  with  costly  jewels.  Long  pilgrimages 
are  made  to  obtain  a  sight  of  it,  and  it  is  worshipped  with 
profbundest  veneration. 

]'ra3'crs,  and  pious  maxims,  printed  on  small  bits  of 
paper,  command  a  ready  sale  at  the  Lamaseries.  They 
have  no  moveable  types,  but  print  them  coarsely  from 
wooden  blocks.  Some  of  the  Lamas  obtain  a  living  by 
transcribing  the  Sacred  Books  for  purchasers.  Some  of 
their  manuscript  editions  are  really  superb,  with  rich  il- 
lustrations, and  higlil}'  ornamented  characters.  Herbs 
gathered  on  sacred  mountains,  and  holy  water  brought 
from  sacred  rivers,  or  consecrated  by  the  benediction  of 
priests,  are  profitable  articles  of  commerce,  because  they 
are  supposed  to  be  invested  with  supernatural  power 
to  cure  diseases,  and  ke^p  off  Evil  Spirits.  Li  Japan, 
the  priests  sell  a  form  of  words,  which  they  assure  pur- 
chasers will  not  only  defend  them  against  Evil  Spirits 
in  this  world,  but  will  serve  as  passports  to  felicity  in 
the  life  to  come.  Some  travellers  assert  that  they 
borrow  money  for  religious  purposes,  and  promise  an 
equivaliMit  in  the  good  things  of  Paradise.  As  security, 
they  give  the  lender  a  writing,  which  he  is  to  carry  witli 
liim  to  the  other  woj'ld,  to  prove  the  amount  of  liis  claims. 
All  Buddhists  retain  tiie  old  Hindoo  belief  that  nearly  all 
departed  souls  remain  for  aAvhilc  in  regions  of  punishment, 
graduated  according  to  the  sins  they  have  committed  in 
the  Ijody.  There  they  go  through  a  })rocess  of  purification, 
by  fire,  water,  and  other  means,  and  are  thus  prepared  to 
ascend  to  such  a  degree  of  Paradise  as  is  proportioned  to 
their  iiiei'its.     l^rayei's  and  (ablations  I'roni  the  living  are 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  231 

supposed  to  be  accepted  by  the  Higher  Powers,  in  lieu  of 
these  purifying  sufferings  ;  therefore,  the  more  prayers  and 
gifts  are  offered,  the  shorter  is  the  term  of  punishment. 
Priests  are  supposed  to  be  divinely  instructed  concerning 
the  most  efficacious  forms  of  prayers  and  ceremonies  ;  and 
in  this  way  the  pious  affection  of  relatives  and  friends 
becomes  a  lucrative  source  of  revenue  to  the  Temples  and 
Lan:iaseries  as  it  was  to  the  Bramins  of  Ilindostan,  from 
the  most  ancient  times. 

Some  of  the  Lamas  are  rich,  others  are  poor.  The  offer- 
ings of  pilgrims  are  divided  among  them  according  to  their 
rank.  Some  of  them  manufacture  hats,  boots,  and  clothing 
for  the  establishment.  Some  keep  cows  and  sell  butter 
and  milk  to  their  brethren.  Some  spend  all  their  time  in 
collecting  donations  for  the  Temples  and  Lamaseries.  The 
members  of  these  religious  communities  are  generally 
divided  into  four  classes.  The  first  class  devote  themselves 
to  mysticism,  or  precepts  of  the  contemplative  life.  The 
second  study  the  Liturgy,  and  are  expounders  of  religious 
ceremonies.  The  third  prepare  themselves  for  physicians, 
principally  by  the  study  of  botany,  as  they  use  only  vege- 
table medicines,  concerning  which  they  are  said  to.  possess 
much  valuable  information.  The  fourth  class  are  called 
The  Faculty  of  Prayers.  They  are  expected  to  be  able  to 
recite  by  heart  tlie  prayers  in  the  Sacred  Books  for  all 
occasions.  They  are  most  in  demand,  and  best  paid,  con- 
sequently the  most  numerous. 

The  Lamaseries  are  generally  more  or  less  endowed  by 
the  government,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  it;  for  in 
them  are  concentrated  all  the  intellectual  cultivation  there 
is  in  those  countries.  The  Lamas  are  the  only  physicians, 
astronomers,  architects,  sculptors,  and  painters.  They 
occupy  themselves  very  much  with  the  stud}^  and  com- 
position of  religious  works.  Their  commentaries  on  the 
Sacred  Books  are  very  voluminous.  At  stated  periods, 
people  assemble  in  the  temples  to  hear  them  read  and 
explain  the  precepts  of  Bouddha,  and  other  great  saints. 
But  their  principal  occupation  is  the  education  of  youth  ; 


232  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

not  merely  those  devoted  to  priestly  life,  but  also  those 
intended  for  worldly  professions.  All  the  Lamaseries  are 
schools,  where  instruction  is  given  gratis,  and  poor  children 
are  fed.  In  China,  Thibet,  Birmah,  and  Japan,  it  is  un- 
common to  find  a  man  belonging  to  the  Buddhist  religion, 
who  is  too  ignorant  to  read  and  write.  Tliis  is  one  of  the 
good  effects  of  breaking  down  the  monopoly  of  privileged 
classes,  so  tenaciously  preserved  in  ancient  Egypt  and 
Hindostan.  In  the  u]iper  class  of  seminaries,  philosophy, 
astronomy,  medicine,  and  theology  are  taught.  It  is  true 
these  studies  are  mixed  up  with  magical  rites,  exorcisms 
to  cast  out  Evil  Spirits,  and  other  ideas  which  indicate  the 
infancy  of  knowledge ;  but  the  literature  which  everywhere 
follows  in  the  train  of  Buddhism,  imperfect  as  it  is,  deserves 
the  credit  of  waking  up  nations  previously  slumbering  in 
profoundest  ignorance.  When  Turner  visited  Thibet  in 
1783,  he  found  their  teachers  acquainted  with  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter,  the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  the  use  of  mei'cury  as  a 
medicine. 

The  discipline  in  these  schools  is  very  strict.  The  pupils 
sit  in  an  open  enclosure  enduring  the  cold  in  winter  and 
the  heat  in  summer,  while  they  listen  to  professors  seated 
under  a  canopy,  expounding  the  Sacred  Books.  Men  with 
whips  are  in  attendance,  to  punish  the  slightest  infraction 
of  the  rules.  If  the  students  fail  to  recite  the  lessons  or 
prayers  given  them  to  learn,  they  are  severely  whipped,  or 
made  to  pass  a  cold  night  out  of  doors,  with  little  or  no 
clothing.  They  themselves  say  it  is  impossible  to  learn 
the  prayers  well,  without  being  punished  in  tlie  process. 
They  told  the  French  missionaries  that  all  the  Lamas  who 
could  not  recite  prayers  pei'fectly,  or  cure  diseases,  or  pre- 
dict the  future  correctly,  were  those  who  in  youth  had  not 
been  well  beaten  by  their  masters. 

The  inmates  of  the  Lamaseries  are  generally  very  bene- 
volent to  the  })Oor,  and  extremely  hos[)itable  and  fraternal 
toward  travellers  and  strangers.  M.  Hue,  a  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, speaks  thus  of  his  visit  to  the  celebrated  Lamasery 
of  K(.)unbouni,  in  Tartary  :   "The  reception  given  us  re 


CHIXA    AND   TIIIliET.  233 

called  to  our  tliouglits  those  monasteries  i-aised  by  the  hos- 
pitality of  our  own  religious  aueestors,  in  wliich  travellers 
and  the  poor  always  found  refreshment  for  the  body  and 
consolation  for  the  soul." 

The  more  enlightened  Lamas  manifest  a  beautiful  s])irit 
of  toleration  toward  other  religions.  When  the  mission- 
aries Hue  and  Gabet  expounded  Cliristianity  to  some  of 
the  Lamas  of  Thibet,  they  listened  respectfully,  and  quietly 
replied :  "  Well,  we  do  not  suppose  that  our  prayers  are 
the  only  prayers  in  the  world."  L^pon  one  occasion,  a 
Lama  of  high  rank,  one  of  the  Incarnations  of  Bouddha, 
arrived  with  a  numerous  retinue  at  the  inn  where  these 
missionaries  had  put  up  for  the  night.  When  he  sought 
an  interview  with  them,  they  treated  him  kindly,  but  with- 
out reverence,  not  rising  when  he  entered,  and  remaining 
seated  while  talking  with  him,  though  everybody  else 
prostrated  themselves  before  him.  He  took  no  offence, 
but  was  extremely  gentle  and  affable  in  his  manners.  A 
Roman  Catholic  Breviary  was  lying  on  the  table,  and  he 
admired  its  gilded  edges  and  rich  binding.  When  they 
ex])lained  what  it  was,  he  raised  it  reverentially  to  his 
forehead,  saying  :  "  It  is  your  book  of  prayer.  We 
ought  always  to  honour  and  respect  prayer."  He  sup- 
posed them  to  be  English,  or  Russians.  When  told  they 
were  French,  he  exclaimed:  "Ah,  the  West  contains  so 
many  kingdoms  !  But  what  matter  where  you  are  from  ? 
All  men  are  brothers."  In  answer  to  some  inquiries  by 
the  same  missionaries,  the  Regent  of  Thibet  replied:  "  Even 
if  our  laws  did  prohibit  strangers  from  entering  our  coun- 
try, those  laws  could  not  affect  you.  Men  of  prayer  belong 
to  all  countries.  They  are  strangers  nowhere.  Such  is 
the  doctrine  taught  by  our  Holy  Books." 

All  the  religious  orders  preserve  old-fashioned  simplicity 
with  regard  to  food  and  raiment.  None  of  them  go  with- 
out clothing,  like  some  of  the  Hindoo  devotees  ;  but  some 
of  them  wear  merely  enough  for  purposes  of  modesty,  and 
all  dress  very  plainly.  The  universal  colour  of  their  gar- 
ments is  deep  yellow.  In  Birmah  and  Siam  the  persons 
Vol.  I.— 20* 


234  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  Lamas  are  inviolable,  and  the  lands  belonging  to  Lama- 
series rre  exempted  from  taxation.  But  tlie  princes  watch 
them  with  jealous  eyes,  and  do  not  allow  them  to  meddio 
in  the  least  degree  with  political  affairs.  Any  indulgence 
of  sensual  appetites  is  at  once  punished  by  a  public  and 
disgraceful  expulsion  from  the  brotherhood  ;  but  this  pen- 
alty is  rarely  incurred.  It  is  ])robably  owing  to  such 
restriction  of  power,  and  watchfulness  over  morals,  that 
the  clergy  of  Birmah  are  generally  exemplary  men,  and 
have  a  respectable  knowledge  of  litei-ature,  compared 
with  other  classes  in  Asia.  Among  the  Lamas  of  Thibet, 
and  other  Buddhist  countries,  there  are  also  many  individ- 
uals of  great  worth  and  considerable  learning;  but  a  large 
proportion  of  them  are  too  ignorant  to  understand  the 
Sanscrit  prayers,  which  they  repeat  by  rote.  Among  the 
Cal mucks  there  is  an  inferior  order  of  the  clergy,  who  are 
allowed  to  marry;  and  innovations  of  this  kind  have  crept 
into  some  other  countries.  But  celibacy  is  everywhere 
required  of  tliose  who  fill  the  higiier  offices  of  the  priest- 
hood. 

As  the  early  devotees  changed  into  a  numerous  and 
powerful  body  of  priests,  they  gradually  relaxed  in  devo- 
tional exercises  that  required  much  effort,  and  substituted 
in  their  stead  an  endless  routine  of  ceremonies.  The  sound 
of  the  tom-tom  and  gong  is  perpetually  heard  from  the 
Lamaseries,  summoning  the  inmates  to  the  performance  of 
some  rite.  They  have  prayers  and  chants  three  times  a 
day,  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  as  the  Bramins  did  in 
Hindoo  forests,  ages  and  ages  ago.  Like  them,  also,  they 
jiractise  daily  ablutions,  and  place  offerings  on  the  tombs 
of  ancestors,  with  prayers  to  shorten  the  term  of  unhappy 
transmigration  for  theii'  souls.  They  have  a  great  number 
of  prescriVicd  formulas,  among  which  they  regard  as  most 
cfTicacious  their  six  mystic  syUables,  "  Oin  nuoii  padma 
hown"  said  to  have  been  revealed  to  them  by  the  first  old 
anchorite  on  Bouddha  La.  A  vast  nund)er  of  commenta- 
ries have  been  written  to  explain  these  holy  words.  Oni 
i»  the  mystic  term  to  express  the  Creative  Word.     J\fa,„: 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  235 

is  said  to  signify  a  gem  ;  padma^  a  lotus  ;  and  hornv,  amcA. 
They  attach  as  much  value  to  this  phrase,  as  Hindoos  do 
to  Oin  and  tlie  Gayatri.  To  repeat  it  often  and  devoutly 
is  thought  to  be  the  most  efficacious  mode  of  escaping  from 
•unha[)py  transmigrations,  and  of  becoming  finally  absorbed 
in  Bouddha.  People  are  continually  saying  over  these 
syllables  on  their  rosaries,  they  are  repeated  thousands  of 
times  in  their  public  ceremonies,  and  are  everywhere  in- 
scribed on  the  walls  of  temples,  the  rocks  of  sacred  moun- 
tains, the  banners  carried  in  procession,  and  the  flags  float- 
ing over  their  doors.  Rich  devotees  maintain,  at  their  own 
expense,  companies  of  Lamas  to  travel  over  hill  and  dale, 
carving  this  sacred  formula  on  rocks  and  stones.  Both 
priests  and  people  attribute  magical  virtue  to  the  recitation 
of  these  syllables,  independent  of  the  thought  or  feeling 
with  which  they  arc  pronounced.  One  of  the  religious 
writers  of  Thibet  says :  "  Mount  Sumeru  can  be  weighed 
in  a  balance  ;  the  great  ocean  can  be  drained  drop  by  drop ; 
the  immense  forests  of  the  kingdom  of  snows  (Thibet)  can 
be  reduced  to  ashes,  and  the  atoms  of  these  ashes  can  be 
counted  ;  the  drops  of  a  continual  rain  during  twelve 
months  might  be  numbered ;  but  the  virtues  of  a  single 
recitation  of  these  six  syllables  are  incalculable." 

Like  the  Hindoo  hermits  of  very  ancient  times,  they 
make  use  of  long  rosaries  of  seed,  or  beads.  Devotees  may 
be  continually  met,  fingering  their  beads  as  they  walk, 
and  repeating,  "  Om  mani  j^cidma  houm.'''  Some  of  their 
rosaries  are  very  richly  ornamented.  In  all  the  great 
Lamaseries  they  have  machines  which  resemble  a  barrel 
and  turn  on  an  axle.  They  are  composed  of  a  vast  num- 
ber of  sheets  of  paper,  written  all  over  with  prayers,  and 
])asted  together  till  they  form  a  substance  thick  as  a  board. 
AVhen  set  in  motion,  it  turns  of  itself  for  a  long  while,  and 
he  who  turns  has  the  merit  of  having  said  all  the  prayers 
it  contains.  Sometimes  quarrels  arise  among  the  devotees, 
because  O'^e  comes  and  stops  the  barrel  set  in  motion  by 
another,  and  turns  it  again  for  his  own  benefit.  All  the 
6treams  near  Lamaseries  are  interrupted  by  dams,  con- 


236  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

structed  for  the  purpose  of  turning  numerous  prayer- wheels, 
the  motion  of  which  is  considered  equivalent  to  repeating 
prayers  day  and  night  for  those  who  erected  them.  The 
Tartars  place  them  over  their  fireplaces,  where,  being 
moved  by  the  draught,  they  are  supposed  to  repeat  prayers 
incessantly  for  the  safety  and  prosperity  of  the  household. 
In  Japan,  almost  every  mountain,  hill,  and  cliff,  is  sacred 
to  some  presiding  saint,  to  whom  travellers  are  requested, 
by  inscribed  tablets,  to  address  prayers  as  they  pass.  As 
this  would  occupy  too  much  time,  upright  posts  are  placed 
on  the  roadside,  with  an  iron  plate  fastened  on  the  top ; 
and  turning  a  plate  is  equivalent  to  repeating  a  prayer. 

Priests  teach  that  whosoever  consecrates  a  son  or  a 
daughter  to  the  monastic  life,  is  not  only  a  religious  bene- 
factor, but  thereby  becomes  a  relation  of  Bouddha.  The 
princess  Sanghamitta  and  her  brother  are  mentioned  in 
early  records  as  having  been  thus  consecrated  by  their 
royal  parents.  They  wrought  many  miracles,  "became 
like  the  Sun  and  the  Moon,  illuminating  the  whole  land 
with  the  religion  of  Bouddha,"  and  finally,  while  yet  in 
the  body,  attained  complete  absorption  into  the  Supreme 
Being.  A  princess  in  Ceylon  hearing  the  renown  of  their 
sanctity,  became  interested  to  know  by  what  process  it  was 
acquired ;  and  Sanghamitta  went  to  that  island,  to  initiate 
her  into  the  holy  life.  Several  other  women  joined  them, 
and  lived  together  in  secluded  apartments,  where  they 
spent  their  time  in  contemplation  and  prayer.  This  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  Buddhist  nun- 
neries. 

Lamas  are  exceedingly  numerous.  In  the  Chinese 
empire  alone  there  are  reckoned  to  be  more  than  a  mil- 
lion. In  Tartary,  all  the  male  childi'cn,  except  the  oldest 
sons,  are  brought  up  as  Lamas.  In  Siam  they  are  called 
Talapoins;  in  China,  IIo  Chang;  but  Euro))ean  writers 
generally  style  all  Buddhist  monks  and  priests,  Bonzes. 
The  reverence  bestowed  on  saintly  character,  and  the 
facility  of  obtaining  a  living  by  assuming  it,  are  of  course 
strong  temptations  to  the  indohnit  and  scliish,  who  practiise 


CHINA   AND   TniBET.  237 

many  impositions  on  the  credulous  people.  The  old 
Asiatic  idea  that  diseases  are  occasioned  by  Evil  Spirits, 
who  have  taken  possession  of  the  human  body,  and  can  be 
cast  out  by  forms  of  prayer,  or  at  the  command  of  holy 
men,  is  universally  believed.  In  Tartary,  rich  families  are 
sometimes  told  that  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  demon  a  rich 
suit  of  clothes,  or  a  valuable  horse,  to  induce  him  to  depart. 
When  the  required  articles  are  bestowed,  the  Lamas  recite 
prayers  and  perform  ceremonies,  a  week  or  fortnight,  till 
the  invalid  is  either  dispossessed  of  the  demon,  or  dies.  In 
the  latter  case,  mourners  are  comforted  by  the  assurance 
that  his  soul  has  transmigrated  to  a  much  happier  state 
than  it  possibly  could  have  done  without  their  prayers. 
Sometimes  they  make  an  image  to  represent  the  Evil 
Spirit,  on  which  they  pronounce  curses,  accompanied  by 
furious  gestures  and  the  din  of  noisy  instruments,  and  at 
last  they  set  fire  to  the  image.  The  expense  of  casting  out 
a  devil  sometimes  proves  ruinous  to  the  fortune  of  a 
patient.  Such  practices  are  disapproved  by  the  better  sort 
of  Lamas.  The  Superior  of  one  of  the  Lamaseries  said  to 
the  French  missionaries :  "  When  a  person  is  ill,  the  recita- 
tion of  prayers  is  proper ;  for  Bouddha  is  the  master  of 
life  and  death.  It  is  he  who  rules  the  transmigration  of 
beings.  To  take  remedies  is  also  fitting;  for  the  great 
virtue  of  medicinal  herbs  comes  to  us  from  Bouddha. 
That  devils  may  possess  rich  persons  is  credible,  but  to 
give  them  horses,  garments,  and  other  rich  presents  to  in- 
duce them  to  depart,  is  a  fiction  invented  by  ignorant  and 
deceiving  Lamas,  who  thus  try  to  accumulate  wealth  at 
the  expense  of  their  brothers." 

Many  of  the  devotees  have  no  settled  abode,  but  are 
always  wandering  about  asking  alms.  In  Japan  especially, 
crowds  of  men  and  women,  with  shaven  heads,  are  trav- 
ersing the  country  in  all  directions,  living  at  the  expense 
of  the  industrious.  The  character  of  many  of  them  is  said 
to  be  far  from  stainless.  Sometimes  they  attempt  to  excite 
compassion  by  fastening  to  their  neck  and  feet  a  heavy 
chain,  which  they  drag   through   the  streets  with  great 


238  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

effort.  They  stop  before  the  houses  and  cry  out  pitifullj  : 
"  You  see  liow  much  it  costs  us  to  expiate  your  sins.  Cari 
you  not  afford  us  some  trifling  ahns?"  Sometimes  they 
hire  men  to  carry  them  through  the  streets  in  a  chair  stuck 
over  with  a  thousand  nails,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is 
impossible  to  stir  without  being  wounded.  To  those  who 
pass  b}^,  the  devotee  proclaims:  "Behold,  I  am  shut  up  in 
this  chair  for  the  good  of  your  souls.  I  am  resolved  never 
to  leave  it  till  all  the  nails  are  bought.  Every  nail  is 
worth  sixpence.  If  you  buy  one,  it  will  certainly  beccme 
a  source  of  happiness  to  you  and  your  families,  and  you 
will  also  perform  a  religious  act;  for  you  will  bestow 
charity  not  on  the  priests,  but  on  the  God  Fo  himself,  for 
whom  we  intend  to  build  a  temple."' 

In  view  of  these  extravagances,  it  is  just  to  remember 
that  they  are  disapproved  by  the  more  enlightened.  The 
Kegent  of  Thibet  said  to  the  French  missionaries :  "  You 
have  doubtless  seen  and  heard  much  to  blame  in  Tartary 
and  Thibet,  but  you  must  hot  forget  that  the  numerous 
errors  and  superstitions  you  may  have  observed  were  in- 
troduced by  ignorant  Lamas,  and  are  rejected  by  well- 
informed  Buddhists." 

The  spirit  of  pilgrimage  prevails  to  a  great  extent. 
Around  the  most  celebrated  Lamaseries  there  is  a  continual 
putting  up  and  pulling  down  of  tents,  and  the  coming  and 
going  of  pilgrims  from  far  and  near,  on  oxen,  horses,  or 
camels.  One  of  the  penances  they  impose  upon  them- 
selves is  to  make  the  circuit  of  the  Lamaseries,  prostrating 
themselves,  with  their  foreheads  to  the  ground,  at  every 
step.  When  the  buildings  arc  of  considerable  extent,  it  is 
difficult  to  complete  the  cii'cuit  thus  in  tlie  course  of  a  long 
day.  They  must  not  })ausc  to  take  nourishment,  for  if  the 
prostrations  are  once  suspended  after  they  are  begun,  all 
the  merit  of  the  performance  is  lost.  At  each  prostration 
the  body  must  be  stretched  flat  on  the  ground,  the  forehead 
touching  the  ground,  the  arms  spread  out,  and  the  hands 
joined  as  if  in  prayer.  They  continue  this  through  driving 
storms  and  the  keenest  cold.     Others  perform  the  (urcuit 


CHINA    AND    THIBET.  239 

canying  a.  load  of  books,  the  weight  of  whieh  is  prescribed 
by  tlie  Larnas.  Wlieii  the  task  is  comph:!ted  they  are 
deemed  to  have  recited  all  the  prayers  contained  in  the 
books  they  carry.  Some  merely  walk  the  circuit,  telling 
the  beads  of  their  long  rosaries,  or  turning  a  prayer-wheel, 
which  they  carry  in  their  right  hand.  Some  pilgrims  un- 
dertake fearfully  long  journeys,  prostrating  themselves  at 
every  step.  Near  Lassa  is  a  high  mountain,  rugged  and 
almost  inaccessible.  The  pilgrim  who  clambers  to  the  top 
of  it  is  thought  to  have  obtained  remission  of  all  his  sins. 
The  offerings  of  the  pilgrims  are  a  great  source  of  revenue 
to  the  Lamaseries.  When  a  devotee  of  wealth  or  rank 
presents  himself,  one  of  the  Incarnations  of  Bouddha 
usually  presides  over  the  ceremony  of  reception.  Plis 
share  in  tlie  offerings  is  fifty  ounces  of  silvei',  a  piece  of 
red  or  yellow  silk,  a  pair  of  boots  and  a  mitre,  arranged  in 
a  basket  decorated  with  flowers  and  ribbons,  and  covered 
with  a  rich  scarf  The  pilgrim  prostrates  himself  on  the 
steps  of  the  altar,  and  places  the  basket  at  the  feet  of  the 
representative  of  Bouddha.  A  pupil  takes  it  up,  and  in 
return  presents  a  scarf  to  the  pilgrim.  The  Superior 
Lama  preserves  meanwhile  the  impassive  character  suited 
to  an  embodied  Divinity. 

The  humble  huts  of  the  primitive  devotees  of  this 
religion  gradually  changed  into  spacious  and  elegant 
mansions.  At  the  present  day.  Lamaseries  are  the  most 
beautiful  edifices  in  Asia,  except  the  royal  palaces.  They 
are  usually  situated  in  pieturesque  and  solitary  places, 
especially  on  the  tops  of  mountains.  Adjoining  them  is 
alwavs  a  temple  dedicated  to  Bouddha,  or  some  saint. 
They  usually  terminate  in  a  pyramid,  whieh  is  a  form  of 
architecture  sacred  to  gods,  priests,  and  kings.  Rich  men, 
who  wish  to  expiate  their  sins,  and  purchase  happiness  in 
a  future  existence,  often  build  and  endow  them  for  public 
hospitals  and  seminaries.  If  they  are  well  situated,  and 
have  ample  funds,  devotees  do  not  fiil  to  present  themselves 
in  sufiieient  numbers  to  fill  them  speedily.  Sometimea 
separate  houses  are  enclosed  within  a  high  wall;    some* 


240  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

times  one  large  building  is  divided  into  various  suites  of 
apartments ;  kitchen,  hospital,  prison,  barber's  office,  trea- 
sury, dining  hall,  library,  reception  room  for  strangers, 
and  sleeping  apartments.  These  buildings  are  exceedingl  y 
numerous.  The  city  of  Lassa  alone  contains  three  thou- 
sand O^  course  the  most  magnificent  of  tliem  all  is  on 
the  fixmous  old  mountain  of  Bouddha  La,  where  the  Supreme 
Pontiff  of  all  the  Lamas  has  his  permanent  residence.  It 
is  an  aoftrreo-ation  of  edifices,  in  the  centre  of  which  rises 
the  temple  of  the  Grand  Lama,  four  stories  high,  and  over- 
looking them  all.  It  terminates  in  a  dome  entirely  covered 
with  golden  plates,  and  surrounded  with  a  peristyle,  the 
columns  of  which  are  covered  with  gold.  It  contains  a 
vast  number  of  apartments,  adorned  with  innumerable 
pyramids  of  gold  and  silver,  and  a  great  number  of  sacred 
images  made  of  the  same  precious  metals.  Within  the 
precincts  of  this  Lamasery  reside  twenty  thousand  Lamas, 
whose  principal  occupation  it  is  to  serve  and  honour  the 
Incarnation  of  Bouddha.  Devotees  will  live  very  sparingly, 
and  even  suffer  for  food  and  clothing,  that  they  may  save 
money  enough  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  this  holy  place, 
and  purchase  perfumes  to  burn  before  the  images.  Strongly 
odorous  flowers  are  a  favourite  offering,  and  they  burn 
large  quantities  of  the  fi'agrant  sandal-wood  for  incense. 
Winding-sheets  consecrated  by  the  Grand  Lama,  and 
covered  with  printed  sentences  from  the  Sacred  Books,  are 
sold  in  large  numbers,  it  being  supposed  that  those  who 
are  buried  in  them  are  sure  of  a  happ}''  transmigration. 
There  have  been  some  instances  of  pilgrims  throwing 
themselves  headlong  from  the  steep  rocks,  as  soon  as  they 
had  completed  their  ])rayers  and  ceremonies;  believing 
that  their  souls  were  then  in  a  })urified  state,  and  sure  of 
'  going  directly  to  Paradise.  There  is  a  continual  throng 
coming  and  going  around  Bouddha  La,  but  they  observe  a 
profound  and  reverential  silence.  Two  avenues  lined  with 
inagnilicent  trees  connect  the  mountain  with  the  city  of 
Jjassa,  about  a  mile  distant.  Here  are  swarms  of  pilgrims 
continually  passing  to  and  I'ro,  reciting  the  mystic  syllables 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  241 

Oil  tlieir  long  rosaries.  In  the  sanctuary  of  the  central 
tem[)le,  resplendent  with  gold  and  brilliant  colours,  is 
placed  a  rich  divan  for  the  Grand  Lama.  At  the  hour 
appointed  for  prayer  a  large  conch  is  sounded  toward  tlie 
four  cardinal  points.  The  great  gate  opens,  and  the  Grand 
Lama  walks  in  and  seats  himself.  The  attendant  Lamas 
leave  their  boots  in  the  vestibule,  enter  barefoot,  and 
j)rostrate  themselves  three  times  before  him.  They  then 
seat  themselves  in  a  circle,  each  according  to  his  dignity. 
The  signal  for  prayer  is  given  by  tinkling  a  little  bell,  fol- 
lowed by  psalms  in  double  chorus.  Kings  and  noble  per- 
sonages flock  to  this  shrine  from  all  quarters,  and  enrich 
the  temple  with  costly  offerings. 

Tartar  Lamaseries  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of 
Thibet  in  extent  or  wealth,  but  some  of  them  are  splendid 
edifices.  The  Tartars  are  exceedingly  frugal  in  their  own 
dress  and  mode  of  living,  but  lavish  in  everything  con- 
nected with  worship.  Lamas  travel  all  over  the  country, 
from  tent  to  tent,  with  authenticated  passports,  begging,  in 
the  name  of  Bouddha,  for  money  to  build  a  temple  or  a 
Lamasery.  The  rich  give  ingots  of  gold  or  silver;  the  less 
pros]3erous  give  camels,  horses,  or  oxen;  and  even  the 
poorest  cheerfully  offer  furs  and  hair  ropes.  In  this  way, 
immense  sums  are  collected,  wherewith  superb  structures 
are  erected  in  the  deserts.  Among  these  the  most  venerated 
is  the  Lamaser}^  of  Kounboum,  famous  to  the  remotest  con- 
fines of  Tartary.  The  following  are  the  traditions  concern- 
ing it.  A  woman,  who  had  become  old  and  was  childless, 
fainted  and  fell  senseless  on  a  rock,  whereon  was  inscribed 
various  sentences  in  honour  of  Bouddha.  From  contact 
with  these  holy  words,  she  conceived  and  bore  a  miraculous 
son,  named  Tsong  Kaba.  When  he  was  born,  he  had  a 
white  beard  and  a  majestic  countenance,  and  immediately 
began  to  utter  wise  saj'ings  concerning  the  nature  and 
destiny  of  man.  At  three  years  old,  he  resolved  to  re- 
nounce the  world,  and  devote  himself  to  religious  contem- 
plation. His  mother  reverently  approved  his  purpose,  and 
prepared  him  by  shaving  his  head,  throwing  his  fine  long 
Vol.  I.— 21  "  i. 


242  rROGKESS  of  religious  ideas. 

hair  outside  the  tent.  Instantly  there  sprang  irom  it  a 
tree,  which  exhaled  exquisite  fragrance,  and  on  every  leaf 
were  inscribed  characters  in  the  sacred  language,  Tsong 
Kaba  spent  his  days  on  summits  of  the  wildest  mountains, 
or  in  the  recesses  of  deep  ravines;  fasting,  praying,  and 
meditating  on  divine  things.  He  tasted  no  flesh,  and 
respected  the  life  of  the  minutest  insect.  At  eighty-two 
years  old,  he  died  ;  or,  according  to  their  mode  of  speaking, 
"  he  ascended  to  the  Heaven  of  Rapture,  and  was  absorbed 
in  Bouddha."  The  mountain  at  the  foot  of  which  he  waa 
born,  became  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage.  Lamas  from 
all  parts  assembled  there  and  built  cells;  and  thus  by 
degrees  was  formed  the  Lamasery  of  Kounboum,  whose 
name  signifies  Ten  Thousand  Images,  in  allusion  to  the 
marvellous  tree,  which  sprang  from  the  hermit's  hair,  with 
characters  in  the  sacred  writing  on  all  its  leaves.  When 
the  emperor  Khang  Hi  made  a  pilgrimage  to  this  place,  he 
erected  a  silver  dome  over  the  tree.  Plants  gathered  on 
this  sacred  mountain  are  bought  by  pilgrims  at  a  great 
price.  The  young  students  of  botany  go  out  in  troops  and 
gather  great  quantities  of  herbs  and  roots,  which  are  stored 
for  sale. 

The  Buddhist  temples  are  covered  inside  and  out  with 
carvings  in  wood  or  stone,  representing  lions,  tigers,  ele- 
})hants,  birds,  reptiles,  and  all  sorts  of  animals,  real  and 
imaginary.  Some  of  these  works  are  executed  with  great 
delicacy  and  beauty.  The  interior  is  filled  with  paintings 
and  statues,  illustrating  the  life  of  Bouddha,  and  the 
various  transmigrations  of  celebrated  saints.  The  Lamas 
themselves  are  the  only  artists  employed  in  these  decora- 
tions, which  are  generally  of  a  fantastic  character.  Most 
of  the  personages  represented  in  the  statues  and  medallioiia 
have  a  monstrous  and  grotesque  a[)pearance.  Bouddha 
alone  is  an  excej)tion.  He  is  always  r('[)res('nted  noble  and 
majestic,  with  large  full  eyes  and  long  curling  hair.  Tlie 
Lamas  are  less  successful  in  ])ainting,  than  in  sculpture, 
being  faulty  in  their  drawing,  and  partial  to  gaudy  colour- 
ing.    But,  according  to  the  testimony  of  M,  Hue,  they 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  243 

sometimes  produce  specimens  of  considerable  beauty. 
While  travelling  among  the  Mongols,  he  says:  "In  a 
great  temple,  called  the  Temple  of  Gold,  we  saw  a  picture 
which  struck  us  Avith  astonishment.  It  was  a  life-size 
representation  of  Bouddha,  seated  on  a  rich  carpet,  sur- 
rounded by  a  kind  of  glory,  composed  of  miniatures 
allegorically  representing  his  thousand  virtues.  This  pic- 
ture was  remarkable  for  the  expression  of  the  faces,  the 
gracefulness  of  the  design,  and  the  splendour  of-  the 
colouring.  All  the  personages  seemed  full  of  life.  An 
old  Lama,  who  attended  us,  told  us  it  was  a  treasure  of  re- 
motest antiquity,  comprehending  on  its  surface  the  whole 
doctrine  of  Bouddha;  that  it  was  not  a  Mongol  painting, 
but  came  from  Thibet,  and  was  executed  by  a  saint  of  The 
Eternal  Sanctuary,"  meaning  the  temple  where  the  Grand 
Lama  resides.  Borri,  a  Jesuit  missionary  to  Cochin  China, 
says  he  saw  an  empty  recess  behind  the  high  altar  in 
Buddhist  temples,  and,  upon  inquiry,  was  informed  that  it 
was  consecrated  to  the  Supreme  Being,  who  was  invisible 
and  incomprehensible,  and  therefore  not  to  be  re^iresented 
by  any  image. 

The  monuments  of  Buddhist  devotion  are  exceedingly 
numerous.  On  the  terrace  of  a  very  old  temple  at  Gaya, 
the  following  inscription,  in  the  Birman  language,  was 
found  a  few  years  since:  "This  is  one  of  the  eighty-four 
thousand  shrines  erected  by  Sri  Dharm  Asoka,  ruler  of  the 
world,  at  the  end  of  the  two  hundred  and  eighteenth  year 
of  Bouddha's  annihilation."  Some  remains  of  the  places 
of  worship  are  immensely  massive,  and  bear  marks  of  ex- 
treme antiquit^^  Mr.  Knox,  speaking  of  Ceylon,  says: 
"The  votaries  of  Bouddha  took  pride  in  erecting  temples 
and  monuments  to  his  memory,  as  if  they  had  been  born 
solely  to  hew  rocks  and  great  stones,  and  lay  them  in 
heaps."  The  largest  of  the  subterranean  temples  on  that 
island  is  one  hundred  and  ninety  feet  long,  and  forty-five 
feet  high.  It  contains  a  recumbent  figure  of  Bouddha, 
thirty  feet  in  length.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
stupendous  structures  is  the  gigantic  temple  in  Java,  called 


244  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

Boro  Buddor.  It  is  in  a  ruinous  condition,  but  fall  of 
elaborate  carving  and  colossal  images.  In  Meaco,  a  city 
of  Japan,  is  a  magnificent  temple  erected  to  Dai  Bod,  by 
which  they  mean  the  God  Bouddha,  It  contains  the  image 
of  a  gigantic  Bull,  butting  his  horns  against  the  Mundane 
Egg,  This  huge  animal  is  said  to  be  formed  of  massive 
gold,  with  a  collar  about  his  neck  adorned  with  precious 
stones.  The  egg  is  on  the  surfoce  of  a  large  stone  basin 
filled  with  water,  in  which  the  feet  of  the  bull  are  im- 
mersed. The  basis  of  the  whole  is  a  large  square 
altar,  engraved  with  many  ancient  characters.  Prints  of 
Bouddha's  feet  are  shown  on  rocks  in  various  countries. 
Several  of  these  rocks  are  covered  with  sculptured  writing, 
and  on  some  of  them  he  is  represented  as  crushing  a  serpent 
under  his  heel.  This  was  probably  intended  to  signify 
that  by  his  ascension  he  vanquished  death.  There  are  the 
same  representations  of  Crishna  on  very  ancient  monu- 
ments in  Hindostan,  doubtless  for  the  same  reason,  for  the 
serpent  was  a  common  Oriental  emblem  for  the  destruction 
of  life. 

The  Buddhists  are  exceedingly  devout;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  contemplative  Lamas,  they  are  not  in- 
clined to  mysticism.  They  are  generally  fond  of  pageantry, 
such  as  showy  processions  to  their  temples  and  sacred 
places,  and  imposing  ceremonies  in  the  Lamaseries,  They 
delight  in  pungent  perfumes  and  gorgeous  colours.  Their 
worship  is  of  a  clamorous  character,  consisting  of  loud 
chants  and  prayers,  accompanied  by  large  and  noisy  instru- 
ments, such  as  gongs,  drums,  cymbals,  trumpets,  and  files. 
They  make  frequent  prostrations  on  their  house-tops,  and 
are  always  fingering  a  rosary,  or  murmuring  prayers,  even 
while  engaged  in  their  daily  avocations,  "As  evening 
twilight  apj)roaches,  all  the  Thibetian  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, stop  business  and  meet  together  in  the  public  squares, 
where  they  all  kneel  down  and  chant  prayers.  In  a  large 
town,  these  sounds  produce  an  immense  solemn  harmony. 
These  vesper  prayers  vary  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year." 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  245 

They  have  solemn  ceremonies  to  welcome  the  new  moon 
and  the  full  moon,  and  changes  of  the  seasons.  Ou  the 
last  day  of  the  full  moon  all  the  Lamas  in  Tartary  assem- 
ble at  midnight,  in  state  mantles  and  mitres,  and  chant 
prayers.  Tlie  ceremony  is  concluded  with  loud  cries,  ac- 
companied by  a  tremendous  noise  of  drums,  trumpets,  and 
conch  shells.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  been  estab- 
lished to  drive  away  Evil  Spirits,  which  infested  the  people 
and  cattle. 

On  certain  occasions,  the  Tartar  Lamas  recite  prescribed 
formulas,  and  toss  up  little  pictures  of  horses  in  the  air, 
with  the  belief  that  Bouddha  will  transform  the  bits  of 
paper  into  living  horses,  for  the  relief  of  travellers  in  the 
deserts. 

There  are  festivals  during  which  the  Buddhists,  in  some 
countries,  scourge  themselves  before  the  altars,  as  did  the 
votaries  of  Isis  in  ancient  Egypt.  The  degree  of  sin  ex- 
piated is  according  to  the  number  and  severity  of  the 
blows. 

The  Feast  of  Lanterns  in  China  bears  strong  resemblance 
to  a  Hindoo  custom,  and  to  the  Egyptian  festival  in  honour 
of  Neith.  On  that  evening  every  Chinese  throughout  the 
empire  lights  a  lantern.  Gorgeous  lanterns  of  painted 
glass,  illuminated  with  torches,  are  suspended  from  all  the 
arches  and  towers.  It  is  said  two  hundred  millions  of 
lamps  are  burning  on  that  occasion. 

In  Birmah  a  white  elephant  is  kept  near  the  roval 
palace,  sumptuously  fed  and  magnificently  caparisoned. 
People  prostrate  themselves  before  him,  and  bring  valuable 
offerings,  which  he  is  taught  to  take  with  his  trunk.  This 
homage  is  said  to  originate  in  a  belief  that  the  soul  of 
Bouddha  once  animated  a  white  elephant  in  the  course  of 
its  manifold  transmigrations. 

The  doctrines  and  ceremonies  of  Buddhism  vary  com 
siderably  in  different  countries.  This  must  necessarily 
happen  to  all  religions  that  are  extensively  embraced; 
because  a  new  faith  unavoidably  mixes  with  the  previous 
ideas  and  customs  of  nations  where  it  is  introduced.  Bud- 
VoL.  I.— 21* 


246  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

dhism  was  peculiarly  subject  to  such  admixture;  because 
its  teachers,  wishing  to  avoid  any  coercive  measures  for  the 
propagation  of  their  religion,  invariably  adopted  into  their 
system  all  the  deities  their  proselytes  had  been  accustomed 
to  revere.  Thus  Brahma,  Yishnu,  Siva,  Indra,  the  Gods  of 
the  Mongols,  and  the  Spirits  of  the  Chinese,  all  found  a 
place  in  their  legends,  and  were  imaged  in  their  temples, 
though  always  represented  as  inferior  to  Bouddha  and  his 
Saints.  But  though  details  vary  much  in  different  coun- 
tries, the  prominent  features  of  Buddhism  are  everywhere 
the  same.  They  all  believe  in  One  Invisible  Source  of 
Being,  sometimes  called  The  Supreme  Intelligence,  some- 
times named  The  Void.  From  him  emanated  all  things  in 
the  universe,  and  into  him  will  all  things  eventually  return. 
Not  only  this  world  will  be  destroyed  and  renovated,  at 
stated  periods,  after  immense  intervals,  but  even  those 
superior  Spheres  where  happy  Spirits  dwell,  must  go 
through  similar  revolutions,  and  all  the  inhabitants  pass 
into  other  forms.  Whenever  this  world  is  created  anew, 
Spirits  who  have  so  far  wandered  from  the  Supreme  as  to 
dwell  in  the  lowest  Paradise,  will  be  sent  into  material 
bodies,  for  probationary  discipline.  Among  them  Avill  be 
many  who  had  been  previously  embodied  on  the  old  earth, 
before  it  was  destroyed.  After  millions  and  millions  of 
ages,  the  time  will  at  last  come,  when  everything  in  the 
universe,  even  the  deities  themselves,  will  be  merged  in 
the  Original  Source  whence  the}^  came.  Then  new  emana- 
tions will  again  conimence,  followed  by  new  worlds,  which 
will  be  again  destroyed.  Nothing  is  exempted  from  this 
])er])etual,  ever-revolving  change,  except  those  souls  who, 
through  perfect  holiness,  have  become  absorbed  into  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  have  thus  become  One  with  Ilim. 
]5ouddha  is  said  to  have  appeared  four  times,  in  worlds 
preceding  this;  and  always  with  the  benevolent  purpose 
of  withdrawing  Spirits  from  the  vortex  of  illusions,  in 
which  they  were  involved  by  their  immersion  in  Mattel'. 
Into  this  present  world  he  descended  in  the  Coi'in  of  r)ouddlia 
Sakia.     His  mother  was  a  beautiful  and  holy  virgin,  be- 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  247 

trothed  to  a  king;  and  his  birth  was  foretold  in  a  miracu- 
lous dream,  Tlie  object  of  his  mission  was  to  instruct 
those  who  were  straying  from  the  riglit  path,  expiate  the 
sins  of  mortals  by  his  own  suffcTings,  and  procure  for  thcni 
a  hnppy  entrance  into  another  existence,  by  obedience  to 
his  precepts  and  prayers  in  his  name.  They  always  speak 
of  him  as  one  with  God  from  all  eternity.  They  describe 
him  as  "  one  substance,  and  three  images."  Ilis  most 
common  title  is  "The  Saviour  of  the  World."  As  he  lias 
repeatedly  assumed  a  human  form,  tofacihtate  the  reunion 
of  men  with  his  own  Universal  Soul,  so  they  believe  that 
there  always  will  be  incarnations  of  his  Spirit.  Chinese 
Sacred  Books  predict  the  coming  of  a  new  Fo  in  the  latter 
days,  whose  mission  it  will  be  to  restore  the  world  to  order 
and  happiness. 

The}'  all  believe  in  the  pre-existence  of  souls.  The  forms 
they  take  are  merely  transient  apparent  images ;  as  metal 
may  be  moulded  into  the  form  of  a  lion,  then  dissolved 
into  a  mass  of  metal  again,  then  be  remoulded  into  the 
form  of  a  man  or  a  god.  They  never  say  a  man  is  dead  ; 
they  always  say  "his  soul  has  emigrated."  The  connection 
of  the  soul  witli  matter  they  consider  an  evil  and  a  punish- 
ment; therefore  enjo^-ment  through  the  senses  is  incom- 
patible with  holiness,  and  it  is  necessary  to  despise  the 
body  and  the  outward  world,  in  order  to  become  saints. 
There  arc  regions  of  Paradise,  and  regions  of  torment, 
where  souls  are  rewarded  or  punished  according  to  the 
exact  amount  of  their  deserts,  before  they  again  enter  into 
some  mortal  form.  These  lu^avens  and  hells,  of  vai'ious 
degrees,  are  {tainted  with  great  luxury  of  imagination  by 
theologians.  The  lower  the  regions,  the  more  unhappy 
the  inhabitants,  the  more  subject  to  miserable  transmigra- 
tions. The  higher  the  celestial  abodes,  the  purer  the  bliss, 
and  the  more  extended  its  duration.  But  even  the  highest 
spheres  are  not  exempted  from  revolutions,  consisting  of 
the  destruction  of  old  forms,  and  the  creation  of  new  ones ; 
though  this  will  be  after  intervals  so  immense,  that  they 
seem  like  eternity. 


248  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

The  most  important  moral  laws  are  contained  in  ten  pre- 
cepts in  their  Sacred  Books;  the  number  ten  being  con- 
sidered essential.  According  to  the  Hindoo  custom  of 
arranging  everything  in  threes,  they  divide  moral  duties 
into  three  classes ;  those  which  relate  to  actions^  to  words^ 
and  to  thoughts.  The  first  three  commandments  relate  to 
actions,  the  next  four  to  words,  and  the  last  three  to 
thoughts,  as  follows :  1.  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  even  the 
smallest  creature."  2.  "  Thou  shalt  not  appropriate  to 
thyself  what  belongs  to  another."  3.  "  Thou  shalt  not 
infringe  the  laws  of  chastity."  4.  "  Thou  shalt  not  lie." 
5.  "  Thou  shalt  not  calumniate."  6.  "  Thou  shalt  not 
speak  of  injuries."  7.  "Thou  shalt  not  excite  quarrels, 
by  repeating  the  words  of  others."  8.  "  Thou  shalt  not 
hate."  9.  "  Preserve  faith  in  the  holy  writings."  10. 
"  Believe  in  immortality." 

The  ignorant  among  the  Buddhists,  as  among  the 
Hindoos,  attach  inherent  virtue  to  the  mere  words  of  their 
Sacred  Books.  A  thief,  who  concealed  himself  in  the  im- 
perial palace,  was  discovered  and  seized  by  the  officers. 
When  they  stripped  him  of  his  clothes,  they  found  every 
inch  of  his  body  covered  with  texts  from  the  Sacred  Books 
of  Fo.  i  He  had  an  idea  that  no  harm  could  possibly  come 
to  him  while  he  was  thus  covered  with  holy  words. 

William  von  Humboldt  says  of  Buddhism  :  "  What  Avas 
once  a  philosophical  doctrine  and  an  enlightened  benevo- 
lent reform  of  the  corruptions  of  Braminism,  ha,s  degener- 
ated into  a  mass  of  unmeaning  practices  and  empty  formulas, 
or  lost  itself  in  a  wholly  unintelligible  mysticism."  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  in  all  ages,  and  among  all 
nations,  there  are  some  minds  which  save  themselves,  by 
an  inward  process,  from  the  lifelcssness  of  the  forms  they 
inherit. 

Little  is  known,  and  still  less  understood,  concerning 
theological  controversies  in  those  distant  countries.  Euro- 
3)can  activity  of  mind  is  not  at  work  there,  to  unsettle 
established  opinions,  but  they  doubtless  bear  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  rest  of  mankind,  in  diversity  of  ideas 


CHINA   AND   THIBET.  249 

concerning  spiritual  problems  puzzling  to  us  all.  Though 
firm  believers  in  unalterable  necessity,  they  strive  to  recon- 
cile it  with  the  free  will  of  man.  Some  of  them  rely 
chiefly  on  meditation  and  foith,  the  inward  operations  of 
the  mind ;  others  attach  more  importance  to  meritorious 
works  and  outward  ceremonies.  In  Thibet  are  two  pro- 
minent sects,  distinguished  by  their  head-dresses.  Those 
who  consider  it  allowable  for  the  religious  to  marry,  wear 
red  caps.  The  advocates  of  strict  celibacy,  who  are  much 
more  numerous,  wear  yellow  caps.  On  what  other  points 
their  opinions  differ  is  not  well  understood  by  foreigners. 
From  time  to  time,  they  have  been  troubled  with  heretical 
sects,  whose  teachers  assumed  the  yellow  robe  of  the  priest- 
hood without  the  sanction  of  ecclesiastical  authorities ;  and 
Councils  have  been  called  to  purify  orthodox  Buddhism 
from  their  alleged  impieties. 

Buddhists  of  all  sects  have  always  abominated  bloody 
sacrifices,  and  they  carry  tenderness  toward  animals  to  an 
extreme  degree.  Their  doctrines  likewise  induce  a  chari- 
table disposition  toward  men.  Believing  transmigrations 
of  the  soul  to  be  regulated  by  laws  of  inherent  necessity, 
the  religious  among  them  feel  for  sinners  more  compassion 
than  contempt  or  hatred ;  for  they  consider  moral  evil  as 
much  a  misfortune  as  a  crime.  One  of  their  common 
maxims  is  that  "the  preceding  births,  and  the  actions  com- 
mitted in  those  previous  existences,  are  destiny,"  This 
tendency  to  fatality  checks  all  energy  and  enterprise,  and 
does  much  to  produce  the  drowsy  apathy  which  character- 
izes Asiatic  countries. 

European  writers  have  brought  against  Buddhists  the 
general  charge  of  atheism.  This  apparently  arises  from 
the  fact  that  their  founder  named  the  Source  of  Being  the 
Infinite  Yoid;  from  extreme  unwillingness  to  ascribe  any 
form,  or  any  passions,  to  the  Deity.  When  djdng,  he  is 
said  to  have  declared  to  his  disciples,  as  a  secret  doctrine, 
unsuited  to  the  populace,  that,  in  the  course  of  revolving 
ages,  all  things  in  the  universe,  even  the  gods  themselves, 
would  return  into  The  Void,  to  be  reproduced  again  in  new 


250  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

forms.  This  repetition  of  the  astronomical  theory  of  the 
ancient  Bramins  has  led  to  the  idea  that  he  and  his  followers 
were  atheists.  There  is  said  to  be  a  sect  among  them  called 
Karnikas,  who  ascribe  consciousness  and  moral  activity  to 
the  First  Principle,  and  believe  that  creation  resulted  from 
the  exercise  of  his  will,  not  from  laws  of  inherent  necessity. 

There  is  much  contradiction  among  writers  concerning 
the  date  of  the  Buddhist  religion.  This  confusion  arises 
from  the  fact  that  there  are  several  Bouddhas,  objects  of 
worship ;  because  the  word  is  not  a  name,  but  a  title,  sig- 
nifying an  extraordinary  degree  of  holiness.  Those  who 
have  examined  the  subject  most  deeply  have  generally 
agreed  that  Bouddha  Sakia,  from  whom  the  religion  takes 
its  name,  must  have  been  a  real  historical  personage,  who 
appeared  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  Christ.  There 
are  many  things  to  confirm  this  supposition.  In  some  por- 
tions of  India,  his  religion  appears  to  have  flourished  for  a 
long  time  side  by  side  with  that  of  the  Bramins.  This  is 
shown  by  the  existence  of  many  ancient  temples,  some  of 
them  cut  in  subterranean  rock,  with  an  immensity  of  labour, 
which  it  must  have  required  a  long  period  to  accomplish. 
In  those  old  temples,  his  statues  represent  him  with  hair 
knotted  all  over  his  head,  which  was  a  very  ancient  custom 
with  the  anchorites  of  Hindostan,  before  the  practice  of 
shavinsf  the  head  was  introduced  among  their  devotees. 
Ilis  religion  is  also  mentioned  in  one  of  the  very  ancient 
epic  poems  of  India.  The  severity  of  the  persecution 
indicates  that  their  numbers  and  influence  had  become 
formidable  to  the  Bramins,  who  had  everything  to  fear 
from  a  sect  which  abolished  hereditary  priesthood,  and 
allowed  the  holy  of  all  castes  to  become  teachers. 

Buddhism  spread  through  foreign  countries  with  such 
rapidity,  that  it  came  to  be  generally  designated  as  "the 
religion  of  the  Vanquisher,"  although  it  was  uniformly 
peaceful  in  its  progress.  For  the  same  reason,  the  Banyar 
Tree,  of  ra{)id  and  interminable  growth,  was  chosen  as  its 
emblem.  Marvellous  stories  are  told  of  the  Banyan  Tree 
niidcr  which  Bouddha  Sakia,  as  a  holy  anchorite,  attained 


CHINA    AND    THIBET.  251 

to  complete  union  with  the  Supreme  Soul,  Shoots  taken 
from  it  were  said  to  send  forth  roots  instantly,  and  to  con- 
lirm  the  faith  of  the  doubtful  by  ascending  into  tlie  air,  and 
floating  among  the  clouds,  surrounded  b}^  a  brilliant  halo." 

Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  five  or  six  hundred 
years  after  Christ.  The  Japan  Encyclopedia  enumerates 
thirty-three  ancient  patriarchs,  or  leaders  of  this  religion, 
the  first  of  whom  received  the  doctrines  and  writings  from 
Bouddha  himself.  These  men  devoted  themselves  to  fast- 
ing, prayer,  ai?<l  constant  meditation.  Several  of  them 
burned  themsciVCS  to  death,  that  the  soul  might  be  released 
from  imprisonment  in  the  body,  and  through  the  intense 
purification  of  fire  pass  into  a  ha])pier  state  of  existence. 
Pictures  and  images  of  these  patriarchs  abound  in  the 
temples,  and  are  held  in  religious  veneration. 

It  is  said  that  eighty  thousand  followers  of  Bouddha 
went  forth  from  Hindostan,  as  missionaries  to  other  lands; 
and  the  traditions  of  various  countries  are  full  of  legends 
concerning  their  benevolence,  holiness,  and  miraculous 
power.  His  religion  has  never  been  propagated  by  the 
sword.  It  has  been  effected  entirely  by  the  influence  of 
peaceable  and  persevering  devotees.  It  now  prevails  in 
China,  Japan,  Thibet,  Siam,  the  Birman  Empire,  Ceylon, 
and  a  large  portion  of  Tartary.  The  era  of  the  Siamese  is 
the  death  of  Bouddha.  In  Ceylon,  they  date  from  the  in- 
troduction of  his  religion  into  their  island.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  more  extensively  adopted  than  any  religion  that  ever 
existed.  Its  votaries  are  computed  at  four  hundred  mil- 
lions; more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  human  race. 

Pilgrims  from  all  these  countries  visit  Benares,  and  otiier 
holy  cities  of  India,  which  they  all  revere  as  the  fountain- 
head  of  their  Religion.  They  speak  of  it  as  "The  King- 
dom of  Virtues,"  "The  Exceeding  Pure  Region,"  "The 
Sacred  Land." 


252  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 


CHALDEA    AND    PERSIA. 

'Cl  aldean  shepherds,  ranging  trackless  fields, 
Looked  on  the  Polar  Star,  as  on  a  guide 
And  gi'ardian  of  their  course,  that  never  closed 
His  steadfast  eye.     The  Planetary  Five 
Witli  a  submissive  reverence  they  beheld; 
Watched  from  the  centre  of  their  sleeping  flocks 
Those  radiant  Mercuries,  that  seemed  to  move, 
Carrying  through  ether,  in  perpetual  round. 
Decrees  and  resolutions  of  the  Gods  ; 
And,  by  their  aspects,  signifying  works 
Of  dim  futurity,  to  man  revealed." 

"The  Persian,  zealous  to  reject 
Altar  and  image,  and  the  inclusive  walls 
And  roofs  of  temples  built  by  human  hands. 
Presented  sacrifice  to  Moon  and  Stars, 
And  the  whole  Circle  of  the  Heavens ;  for  him 
A  sensitive  Existence  and  a  God."  Wordsworth. 

Egyptiajq's  affirmed  that  Chaldea  was  settled  by  a  colony 
from  their  country ;  but  many  learned  men  believe  that 
Egypt  was  younger  than  Chaldea,  and  settled  by  emigrants 
from  thence.  It  is  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture,  for  Chal- 
dean literature  is  all  destroyed,  and  their  famous  capital, 
Babylon,  being  mostly  built  of  bricks  and  bitumen,  has 
left  no  vestiges  by  Avhicli  to  reckon  historical  dates.  When 
Alexander  the  Great  conquered  the  city,  Chaldean  jiricsts 
boasted  to  the  Greek  philosophers,  who  followeil  his  arni}^, 
that  they  had  continued  their  astronomical  calculations 
through  a  period  of  more  than  forty  thousand  years.  The 
earliest  records  actually  found  by  the  Greeks  extended 
back  two  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-four  years  be- 
fore the  Chri.stian  ei-a;  only  one  hundred  and  fi)urtcen 
years  after  our  comniunly   received  epoch  of  the   Flood. 


CnALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  253 

The  great  antiquity  of  Chaldea  cannot  be  doubted,  and  its 
intimate  connection  with  Ilindostan,  or  Egypt,  is  abun- 
dantly proved  by  the  little  that  is  known  concerning  its 
religion,  and  by  the  few  fragments  that  remain  of  its  former 
grandeur.  The  ruins  of  Nineveh  have  lately  been  ex- 
cavated, after  having  lain  concealed  from  the  eye  of  man 
for  two  thousand  five  hundred  years.  Obelisks,  and  gi- 
gantic sphinxes  have  thus  been  brought  to  light,  and  images 
of  the  sacred  bull,  often  represented  winged  and  with  a 
human  head.  The  sun,  moon,  and  trident  of  Siva  were 
found  over  the  entrances  of  temples,  the  same  as  in  Ilin- 
dostan. Hieroglyphics  were  cut  on  the  monuments,  and 
the  sculptures  were  painted  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  the 
brightness  of  which  faded  when  exposed  to  the  air,  after 
their  long  interment.  The  triangular  harp  of  Egypt  is 
represented,  and  so  is  the  Tree  of  Life,  which  both  in 
Egypt  and  Ilindostan  was  believed  to  confer  immortality 
on  those  who  ate  of  its  fruit.  The  attitude  of  adoration, 
standing  with  uplifted  hands,  is  the  same  as  in  Egypt. 
Deities  are  represented  with  the  heads  of  birds,  and  carry 
lotus-blossoms  in  their  hands,  or  rings  to  represent  com- 
pleted cycles.  The  bull,  the  ram,  the  lit)n,  the  goat,  the 
seven  planets,  and  other  astronomical  emblems,  occur  ev- 
erywhere. One  of  their  deities  is  represented  with  four 
wings,  each  terminating  in  a  star.  An  orb  with  wings  is 
conspicuous  among  their  sacred  emblems,  and  strongly  re- 
sembles the  winged  globe  of  the  Egyptians,  the  symbol 
of  Osiris.  Diodorus,  the  historian,  says  Chaldeans  called 
the  planets  by  the  very  same  names  which  Greeks  used  to 
designate  them,  and  Greeks  borrowed  their  names  fi'om  the 
Egyptians.  The  sexual  emblem,  so  common  in  Egypt  and 
Ilindostan,  has  not  been  found  on  the  ruins  of  Nineveh. 

Chaldeans  believed  in  One  Supreme  Being,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  subordinate  deities  emanating  from  him,  in  suc- 
cessive gradations.  Spirits  that  were  nearer  the  Divine 
Source  were  clothed  with  more  ethereal  forms  than  those 
more  remote.  The  human  soul  was  a  })orLion  of  God, 
and  originally  had  wings,  which  having  perished,  must 
Vol.  1.— 22 


254:  PRoaREss  of  religious  ideas. 

be  reproduced  before  it  could  return  to  its  source,  Tlie 
stars  were  Spirits,  and  had  an  influence,  beneficent  or 
malignant,  on  the  affairs  of  the  world ;  and  wise  men,  by 
observing  certain  rules,  could  discover  the  secrets  they  re- 
vealed. They  believed  the  world  was  created  in  six  suc- 
cessive periods,  and  was  alternately  destroyed  and  renewed 
in  the  course  of  revolving  ages.  Whenever  all  the  planets 
met  in  the  sign  of  Capricorn  the  whole  earth  was  over- 
whelnr-cd  with  a  deluge  of  water,  and  whenever  they  all 
met  in  Cancer  it  was  consumed  by  fire. 

There  was  a  powerful  order  of  priests,  who  conducted  the 
ceremonies  of  religion,  explained  the  laws,  practised  medi- 
cine, interpreted  dreams,  and  averted  evils  by  magical 
rites.  A  class  of  them  were  set  apart  on  purpose  to  ob- 
serve the  heavenly  bodies  and  keep  record  of  their  changes. 
The  chief  use  made  of  this  knowledge  was  to  foretell 
weather  and  predict  future  events.  These  prophets  became 
so  celebrated  that  for  many  centuries  all  astrologers  were 
known  by  the  general  name  of  Chaldeans.  They  were 
believed  to  be  acquainted  with  spells  that  could  command 
Spirits,  and  induce  them  to  reveal  supernatural  virtues  ex- 
isting in  herbs  and  stones.  These  laws  of  magic  were 
deemed  so  important  that  the  kings  of  Chaldea  and  Persia 
were  instructed  therein  as  a  valuable  instrument  of  govern- 
ment. It  was  supposed  that  the  forces  of  an  enemy  might 
be  routed,  and  a  whole  army  struck  with  sudden  panic,  by 
the  due  performance  of  prescribed  ceremonies  and  in- 
vocations. The  pi'iests  had  secret  doctrines  and  religious 
mysteries,  which  they  transmitted  from  father  to  son,  and 
carefully  veiled  fi'oni  the  popuhroo,  who  worshi])ped  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  not  as  cmlilems,  but  as  real  deities. 

The  idea  that  heavenly  luminaries  were  inhabited  by 
Spirits,  of  a  nature  intermediate  between  God  and  men, 
first  led  mortals  to  address  prayers  to  tlie  orbs  over  which 
they  were  supposed  to  preside.  In  order  to  supplicate 
these  deities,  when  sun,  moon,  and  stars  were  not  visible, 
they  made  images  of  them,  which  the  ])riests  consecrated 
with    many  ceremonies.      Then    they  i)ronounced   solemn 


CIIALDEA    AND   PERSIA.  '  255 

invocations  to  draw  down  the  Spirits  into  the  statues  pro- 
vided for  their  reception.  By  this  process  it  was  supposed 
that  a  mysterious  connection  was  estabhshcd  between  the 
Spirit  and  th&  image,  so  that  prayers  addressed  to  one  were 
thenceforth  heard  by  the  other.  This  was  probably  the 
origin  of  image  worship  everywhere. 

The  highest  deity  among  the  Chaldeans  was  called  Bel, 
or  Baal,  which  signifies  Lord,  or  Prince,  of  the  Heavenly 
Luminaries.  The  symbol  sacred  to  him  was  a  circle  with 
wings,  probably  to  represent  the  disc  of  the  Sun  and  the 
Spirit  presiding  over  that  resplendent  orb.  Some  have 
supposed  that  Bel  us,  a  beneficent  ruler,  who  improved 
agriculture,  united  rivers  by  canals,  and  fortified  Babylon 
with  walls,  was  believed  to  be  an  avatar,  or  incarnation  of 
this  deity,  and  therefore  received  his  name.  Animals  were 
sacrificed  to  Bel,  and  probably  human  beings  also.  Queen 
Semiramis  erected  a  temple  for  his  worship  at  Babylon, 
which  on  account  of  its  great  height  was  used  to  observe 
the  stars.  Herodotus  says  it  was  ascended  by  steps  on  the 
outside,  from  the  ground  to  the  highest  point  of  the  tower. 
At  the  top  was  a  chapel,  containing  a  table  of  solid  gold, 
and  a  couch  magnificently  adorned,  where  Bel  was  said  to 
sleep.  A  priestess  resided  there,  whom  the  priests  affirmed 
to  have  been  selected  by  the  god  himself  to  attend  upon 
him,  because  she  was  more  beautiful  than  any  other  woman 
in  the  nation.  This  famous  temple  is  reported  to  have 
contained  three  golden  statues.  One  of  Bel,  forty  feet 
high ;  another  of  a  goddess  supposed  to  have  been  a 
symbol  of  Nature,  recipient  and  })rescrver  of  the  life- 
giving  principle  of  the  world.  She  sat  in  a  golden  chair, 
with  two  lions  by  her  side,  and  two  huge  silver  serpents 
at  her  feet.  Another  goddess  represented  the  planet  which 
we  call  Venus,  and  was  supposed  to  preside  over  genera- 
tion. Her  forehead  was  surmounted  by  a  star,  she  held  in 
her  right  hand  a  serpent,  in  her  left,  a  sceptre  adorned  with 
gems,  Syrians  worshipped  her  under  the  name  of  Astartc, 
and  it  is  supposed  she  is  alluded  to  in  Hebrew  Scripiures 
as  "The  Queen  of  Heaven."     It  is  said  every  woman  in 


25.6  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Babylon  was  obliged  to  offer  lier  person  for  sale  one  clay 
in  the  year,  at  the  temple  of  this  goddess,  and  give  the 
money  thus  obtained  to  defray  the  expenses  of  her  worship. 
In  Syria,  every  woman  was  required  to  conform  to  tlie 
same  custom,  or  in  lieu  thereof  cut  off  all  her  hair  as  an 
offering  to  Astarte.  We  have  no  description  of  the  re- 
ligious festivals  of  the  Chaldeans,  but  from  the  great  wealth 
of  Babylon,  and  the  expense  so  lavishly  bestowed  on  sacred 
edifices,  we  may  reasonably  infer  that  their  religious  anni- 
versaries were  observed  with  pompous  processions  and 
splendid  pageantry.  In  autumn  they  had  a  harvest  fes- 
tival of  five  days,  during  which  time  masters  everywhere 
exchanged  places  with  their  servants,  one  of  whom  pre- 
sided over  the  household  in  royal  robes.  When  Babylon 
was  conquered  by  the  Persians,  under  Cyrus  the  Great,  the 
magnificent  temple  of  Bel  was  robbed  of  its  treasures  in 
gold,  silver  and  gems. 


Persia,  though  ancient  to  us,  was  a  modern  nation  com- 
pared with  Hindostan,  Egypt,  or  Chaldea.  When  Baby- 
lon was  in  its  glory,  Persia  was  inhabited  by  rude  tribes, 
who  had  no  place  in  history  till  the  time  of  C^n-us  the  Great. 
It  was  originally  called  Iran,  which  means  the  Land  of 
Light.  Uerodotus  informs  us  that  their  religious  cere- 
monies were  conducted  with  great  simplicity.  They  had 
neither  temples  nor  altars,  and  considered  it  impious  to 
make  images  of  Divine  Beings.  They  ascended  moun- 
tains, and  offered  sacrifices,  hymns,  and  prayei's  to  the 
whole  expanse  of  the  Firmament ;  or  rather  to  the  Deity, 
the  Centre  and  Source  of  Universal  Light,  whom  they 
supposed  to  reside  there.  They  likewise  worshipped  sun, 
inoon,  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water. 

Concerning  their  great  religious  teacher  Zerdusht,  or 
Zoroaster,  the  most  confused  and  contradictory  accounts 
arc  given.  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  others,  fix  his  date  five 
thousand  years  before  the  Trojan  war,  which  would  be 
more  than  six  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and   Plato   mentions   this  as  the   most  connnon   opinion. 


CHALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  257 

PlutaTch  and  others  say  he  flourished  only  five  hundred 
years  before  the  Trojan  war.  The  Persians  themselves 
had  a  tradition  that  he  came  from  some  country  to  the 
east  of  them,  and  they  believed  him  to  liave  been  more 
ancient  than  the  date  we  assign  to  Moses.  That  he  was  a 
foreigner  is  indicated  by  a  passage  in  the  Zendavesta,  which 
represents  Orniuzd  as  saying  to  him,  "  Up !  and  go  into 
the  Land  of  Iran."  The  confusion  in  chronology  has  led 
some  scholars  to  suggest  that  there  might  have  been  two 
celebrated  sages,  who  bore  the  same  name ;  one  very  an- 
cient, and  the  other,  who  was  the  great  reformer  of  the  old 
religion  of  Persia,  not  dating  much  farther  back  than  the 
time  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  who  lived  five  hundred  and  fifty- 
nine  years  before  Christ.  The  learned  Heeren  thinks  it  is 
satisfactorily  proved  b}^  internal  evidence  from  Zoroaster's 
own  writings,  that  he  lived  at  "a  period  anterior  to  the 
very  commencement  of  the  Median  empire,  ascending 
beyond  the  eighth  century  before  the  Christian  ei'a."  He 
adds :  "  Whether  we  must  refer  him  to  a  still  more  ancient 
epoch,  must  remain  a  question."  One  thing  is  certain ; 
there  was  a  man  called  Zoroaster,  whom  all  Asiatic  writers 
agree  in  representing  as  eminent  for  wisdom,  particularly 
for  knowledge  of  astronomy.  The  religion  which  bore  his 
name  is  well  known  to  have  prevailed  throughout  Persia 
in  the  time  of  Socrates;  and  of  the  Sacred  Books  ascribed 
to  him  mutilated  copies  still  remain. 

Tradition  reports  that  his  mother  had  alarming  dreams 
of  Evil  Spirits  seeking  to  destroy  the  child  to  whom  slie 
was  about  to  give  birth.  But  a  good  Spirit  came  to  rescue 
him,  and  said  to  her  :  "Fear  nothing!  Orniuzd  will  pro- 
tect this  infant,  lie  has  sent  him  as  a  prophet  to  the  peo- 
ple. The  world  is  waiting  for  him."  When  he  was  born, 
wicked  Spirits  threw  him  into  a  flaming  fire ;  but  his 
mother  found  him  sleeping  sweetly  there,  as  if  it  were  a 
pleasant  bath.  It  is  said  that  he  lived  twenty  years  in  the 
wilderness,  on  cheese  that  never  grew  stale.  Then  he  re- 
tired to  a  solitary  mountain,  and  devoted  himself  to  silent 
contemplation,  in  order  to  attain  perfect  holiness.  One 
\'oL  I.— 2-2* 


258  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

cla}^,  fire  from  heaven  descended  visibly  upon  this  moun- 
tain, and  the  king  of  Persia,  attended  by  his  court,  ap- 
proached to  worship  tlie  sacred  flame,  Zoroaster  came 
down  through  the  fire  unharmed,  bringing  witli  him  a 
Book  of  Laws,  which  he  said  had  been  revealed  to  him  on 
the  mountain,  by  Ormuzd  himself.  They  called  this  the 
Zend-Avesta,  which  signifies  the  Living  Word.  They  be- 
lieved, it  to  be  a  portion  of  the  Primeval  Word,  by  which 
creation  was  produced,  and  that  every  syllable  it  contained 
possessed  an  inherent  virtue.  When  sacrifices  were  offered, 
it  was  not  allowable  to  omit  or  transpose  a  single  word.  If 
priests  should  fail  to  perform  the  ritual,  or  to  recite  the 
prayers  therein  prescribed,  they  supposed  the  order  of  the 
universe  would  be  disturbed,  and  all  things  fall  into  con- 
fusion.  It  was  written  in  the  Zend  language,  a  dialect  of 
the  Sanscrit,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  confined  to  priests.  After  the  promulgation  of  these 
holy  laws,  it  is  related  that  Zoroaster  did  not  converse  in- 
discriminately with  all  men,  but  only  with  those  capable 
of  understanding  divine  things.  He  held  fire  in  his  hand, 
and  allowed  melted  lead  to  be  poured  into  his  bosom ;  but 
nothing  could  do  him  any  harm.  Concerning  his  death, 
they  affirm  that  he  invoked  the  Spirit  of  the  constellation 
of  Orion,  praying  to  be  consumed  by  celestial  fire;  and 
that  he  ascended  to  heaven  on  a  thunderbolt.  The  tradi- 
tion ()l)viously  implies  that  he  died  by  lightning,  Tlie 
Persians  considered  him  a  divine  messenger  sent  to  redeem 
men  fi'om  their  evil  \va3's,  and  they  always  woi"shipj)ed  his 
memory.  To  this  day,  his  followers  mention  him  with  the 
greatest  revei'ence ;  calling  him  "  The  Immortal  Zoroaster," 
"  'J'he  Blessed  Zoroaster,"  "  The  Living  Star."  Priests  often 
precede  their  ceremonies  with  these  words  :  "  0  Just  Judge, 
there  is  but  one  Zoroaster;  that  is  certain  ;  that  is  beyond 
doubt.  The  law,  excellent,  right,  and  just,  whic;h  Oi-muzd 
lias  given  to  his  pco])le,  is  cei'tainly,  and  without  doubt, 
that  which  Zoroaster  has  bi-ought." 

lie  taught  th(!  existence  of  One  Supreme  Essence,  invisi- 
ble and  incom])rehi'nsible,  named  Zeruaue  Akerenc,  which 


CHALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  259 

signifies  Unlimited  Time,  or  The  Eternal.  From  him  em- 
anated Primeval  Light;  from  vvhieli  sprung  Ormu;id,  the 
King  of  Light.  lie  was  God  of  the  Firmament,  and  the 
Prinjiple  of  Goodness  and  of  Truth.  He  was  called  "The 
Eternal  Source  of  Sunshine  and  Light,"  "The  Centre  of  all 
that  exists,"  "The  First  Born  of  the  Eternal  One,"  "The 
Creator,"  "The  Sovereign  Intelligence,"  "The  All-See- 
inaf,"  "The  Just  Jud^e."  He  was  described  as  "sitting 
on  the  throne  of  the  good  and  the  perfect,  in  regions  of 
pure  light,"  crowned  with  rays,  and  with  a  ring  on  his 
linger;  a  circle  being  the  emblem  of  infinity;  sometimes 
as  a  venerable,  majestic  man,  seated  on  a  Bull,  their  em- 
blem of  creation.  He  pronounced  the  Primeval  Word, 
Enohe  verihe!  Be  it!  and  his  own  abode  of  celestial  light 
sprang  into  existence,  as  far  removed  from  the  sun,  as  the 
sun  is  from  the  earth.  He  then  created  six  resplendent 
Spirits,  masculine  and  feminine,  called  Amshaspands,  The 
Immortal  Holy  Ones,  of  whom  himself  was  the  seventh 
and  highest.  These  deities  of  benevolence  and  wisdom 
surround  the  throne  of  Ormuzd,  and  convey  to  him  the 
prayers  of  inferior  spirits,  and  of  men,  for  whom  they  are 
models  of  purity  and  perfection.  The  next  series  of  crea- 
tion were  twenty-eight  gentle  and  kindly  Spirits,  mascu- 
line and  feminine,  called  Izeds,  the  chief  of  whom  was  the 
radiant  Mithras.  They  presided  over  sun,  moon,  and  star.s, 
showered  beneficent  gifts  upon  the  earth,  endeavoured  to 
protect  it  from  evil  influences,  and  served  as  messengers 
l)etween  men  and  the  Superior  Spirits.  The  third  order  of 
Spirits,  called  Fervers,  were  infinitely  more  numerous  ;  for 
they  were  the  ideas,  which  Ormuzd  conceived,  before  he 
proceeded  to  the  creation  of  the  world.  Hence  they  were 
the  archetypes  of  every  thing  that  existed,  the  vivifying 
principles  which  animated  all  things  in  the  universe,  and 
the  guardians  of  stars,  men,  animals,  plants,  and  all  other 
ci"eated  things.  Every  mortal  had  one  of  these  Spirits  by 
his  side  through  life,  to  protect  him  from  evil.  Even  Or- 
muzd himself  was  supposed  to  have  his  attendant  Ferver. 
Khor,  the  Sun,  was  called  "  The  Ej'e  of  Ormuzd."     He 


260  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

is  described  as  riding  in  a  cliariot  with  four  horses,  and 
finishing  his  course  round  tlie  earth  in  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  days.  A  trumpet  always  sounded  from  tlae  royal 
pavilion  at  the  moment  the  sun  rose ;  and  over  the  en- 
trance was  a  brilliant  image  of  the  sun,  enclosed  in  crys- 
tal. Mithras,  described  as  "tlie  Spirit,  or  Ferver,  who  at- 
tends the  Sun  in  his  course,"  was  an  object  of  almost  uni- 
versal worship  throughout  Persia.  He  was  at  first  always 
invoked  with  the  Sun,  and  in  later  times  they  were  con- 
founded together.  He  was  called,  "The  most  exalted  of 
the  Izeds,  the  never-sleeping,  the  protector  of  the  land." 
He  is  described  as  having  a  thousand  ears,  and  ten  thou- 
sand eyes.  He  was  not  merel}^  the  Snin't  of  Light,  but 
also  of  Intelligence.  Prayers  were  ofl«ii  addressed  to  him 
as  "  The  Mediator,"  because  he  was  supposed  to  mediate 
between  the  conflicting  powers  of  good  and  evil.  Like 
Osiris  of  Egypt,  he  was  the  god  of  fertility  and  beneficence ; 
like  him,  he  was  described 'with  the  orb  of  the  sun  on  his 
head,  and  a  circle  with  wings  was  his  symbol.  Mithra,  a 
feminine  Ized,  was  his  companion. 

The  universe  was  intrusted  to  a  chain  of  spiritual  agencies, 
ascending  from  the  smallest  terrestrial  thing  up  to  the  throne 
of  the  Eternal  One.  Minerals,  plants,  insects,  birds,  quad- 
rupeds, fire,  air,  earth,  and  water,  had  each  a  presiding 
Spirit.  Twelve  genii  of  the  zodiac  ruled  over  the  montiis, 
and  thirty  subordinate  ones  over  each  day  of  the  month. 
All  the  heavenly  luminaries  were  animated  with  Souls,  of 
higher  and  higher  intelligence,  and  more  and  more  ethereal 
forms.  Everything  in  the  orbs  over  which  they  presided 
partook  of  their  cliaracter  and  state,  whether  more  or  less 
excellent.  "Stars  with  tails"  (comets)  were  under  the  care 
of  sun,  moon,  and  fixed  stars,  who  kept  them  within  pre- 
scribed limits.  Sirius,  or  the  Dog  Star,  so  sacred  in  Egypt 
as  the  Star  of  Lsis,  was  appointed  to  guide  all  the  others. 
A  Persian  poet  says:  "(jod  conferred  sovereignty  on  the 
Sun,  and  squadrons  of  Stars  were  his  army." 

The  Spirits  of  the  Stars  were  benevolent  guardians  of 
men,  and  of  all  inferior  creatures.     They  were  endowed 


CriALDEA    AND    I'ERSIA.  261 

witli  intelligence  superior  to  the  Spirit  of  our  Eartli. 
Their  vision  extended  through  the  universe.  They  knew 
what  would  happen  in  the  future,  and  could  reveal  it  to 
those  who  understood  their  signs.  The  destinies  of  men 
were  intimately  connected  with  their  motions,  and  there- 
fore it  was  important  to  know  under  the  influence  of  what 
star  a  human  soul  made  its  advent  into  this  world.  As- 
trologers swarmed  in  the  palace  of  the  king,  and  were  con- 
sulted on  all  important  occasions.  Persians  held  the  stars 
in  such  affectionate  reverence  that  wlienever  they  looked  at 
one  they  kissed  their  hand  to  it. 

In  Ilindostan  the  destroj'ing  principle  and  the  repro- 
ducing were  united  in  the  same  deity.  In  Egypt  the  de- 
structive and  beneficent  god  were  twin  brothers.  In  Persia, 
Ormuzd,  the  King  of  Light,  and  Arimanes,  the  Prince  of 
Darkness,  both  emanated  fi-om  The  Eternal  One.  Ar- 
imanes, the  second  emanation,  became  jealous  of  the  First 
Born.  In  consequence  of  his  manifestations  of  pride  and 
envy,  the  Eternal  One  condemned  him  to  remain  three 
thousand  years  in  the  dark  realm  of  shadows,  where  no 
ray  of  light  could  penetrate.  During  this  time,  Ormuzd 
made  the  firmament,  the  heavenly  orbs,  and  Celestial 
Spirits,  without  his  being  aware  of  it.  But  when  the  period 
of  his  banishment  had  expired,  he  approaehed  the  light, 
and  its  dazzling  beauty  renewed  liis  old  feelings  of  envy. 
He  resolved  to  compete  with  Ormuzd  in  everything.  He 
created  seven  Spirits  called  Archdevs,  in  opposition  to  the 
Amsliaspands,  and  attached  them  to  the  seven  ]jhinets,  to 
paralyze  their  efforts  for  good,  and  substitute  evil.  Then 
he  made  twenty-eight  Spirits  called  Devs,  to  counteract  the 
Izeds,  by  spreading  all  manner  of  disorder  and  distress. 
The  most  powerful  and  pernicious  of  these  was  an  impure 
Serpent  with  two  feet,  named  Aschinogh.  Then  he  pro- 
duced a  crowd  of  genii  to  oppose  the  beneficent  operations 
of  the  Fervers,  so  that  everything  had  an  attendant  bad 
Spirit,  as  well  as  a  good  one. 

Ormuzd,  to  arrest  the  increase  of  evil,  made  an  egg  con- 
taining kindly  Spirits;   but  Arimanes  made  one  containing 


262  PROGRESS   OF   Rl!;LIGIOIJS   IDEAS. 

an  f.qual  number  of  Spirits  of  haired;  then  he  broke  the 
eggs  together,  and  good  and  evil  became  mixed  in  the  new 
creation. 

Ormuzd  created  the  material  world  in  six  successive 
periods.  He  first  spread  out  the  firmament,  with  its  orbs 
of  light ;  second,  he  created  water ;  third,  earth ;  fourth, 
trees;  fifth,  animals;  sixth,  man.  AVhen  all  was  finished 
he  devoted  a  seventh  period  to  a  festival  with  the  good 
Spirits.  Arimanes  assisted  in  the  creation  of  the  earth  and 
the  water,  because  the  King  of  Shadows  could  not  be  ex- 
cluded from  those  deep  opaque  elements.  Ormuzd,  by  his 
will  and  his  word,  created  a  Bull,  the  symbol  of  all  Life 
upon  the  earth.  Arimanes  slew  him,  but  drops  Irom  his 
body  falling  into  the  ground  afterward  produced  various 
animals  and  plants.  AVhen  the  elementary  particles  of  his 
body  had  been  purified  in  the  light  of  the  sun  forty  years, 
they  became  the  germ  of  the  Eibas  tree,  consisting  of  two 
closely  intertwined  stems.  Into  these  Ormuzd  infused  the 
breath  of  life,  and  they  became  the  first  man  and  the  first 
woman,  named  Meshia  and  Meshiane.  Celestial  happiness 
was  intended  for  them,  if  they  obeyed  the  laws  of  Ormuzd 
with  humility,  did  not  invoke  Evil  Spirits,  and  kept  them- 
selves pure  in  thought,  word,  and  action.  They  did  so  in 
the  beginning.  They  said  to  each  other:  "It  is  Ormuzd 
who  has  given  us  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  water,  earth,  trees, 
and  animals.  All  cometh  from  a  pure  root,  and  beareth 
pure  fruit."  But  because  Ormuzd  had  made  a  Guardian 
Spirit  to  watch  over  every  human  being,  Arimanes  made 
an  Evil  Genius  to  attend  upon  and  tempt  each  one  through 
his  whole  life.  These  wicked  ones  slipped  into  their 
thoughts,  and  said:  "It  is  Arimanes  who  has  given  the 
sun,  and  moon,  and  all  good  things."  And  when  they 
listened  to  this  suggestion,  Arimanes  cried  aloud  from  his 
realm  of  shadows:  "0  men,  woi'shij)  us!"  Then  Meshia 
poured  milk  toward  the  North,  as  a  libation  to  the  Spirits 
of  ])arkness,  and  their  power  was  greatly  increased 
thereby.  'J'o  harass  and  destroy  the  good  animals,  Ai'i- 
inanes  made  wolves,  and  tigers,  and  so'pents,  and  venomous 


CHALDEA   AND   PP:KS1  U  263 

insects.  By  eating  a  certain  kind  of  fruit,  lie  transformed 
himself  into  a  serpent,  and  went  gliding  about  on  the  earth 
to  tempt  human  beings,  Ilis  Devs  entered  the  bodies  of 
men  and  produced  all  manner  of  diseases.  They  entered 
into  their  minds,  and  incited  them  to  sensuality,  falsehood, 
slander  and  revenge.  Into  every  department  of  the  world 
they  introduced  discord  and  death.  When  Ormuzd  tried 
to  lead  men  against  Arimanes,  they  deserted  him  and 
joined  the  enemy,  thus  enabling  him  to  gain  the  as- 
cendancy on  earth  and  keep  it  for  three  thousand  years. 

The  laws  of  Zoroaster  were  given  to  guide  men  back  to 
true  worship.  The  Zend-Avesta  tells  us  that  in  view  of  the 
accumulation  of  evil,  he  cried  out  in  prayer :  "  O  Ormuzd, 
steeped  in  brightness,  what  shall  I  do,  in  order  to  battle 
successfully  with  Arimanes,  the  father  of  evil  ?  How 
shall  I  make  men  pure  and  holy?" 

Ormuzd  answered:  "O  Zoroaster,  invoke  Zeruane  Ake- 
rene.  Invoke  the  Amshaspands,  who  shed  abundance 
throughout  the  seven  planets.  Invoke  the  birds,  travelling 
on  high.  Invoke  the  swift  wind,  the  earth,  and  the  heaven. 
Invoke  my  Spirit,  who  am  the  strongest,  wisest,  best  of 
beings;  who  have  the  most  majestic  bod}',  who  am  su- 
preme in  purity,  whose  soul  is  the  excellent  Word.  All 
ye  people,  invoke  me,  as  I  have  commanded  Zoroaster," 

"Thou,  0  Zoroaster,  by  the  pronmlgation  of  my  Law, 
shalt  restore  to  me  m}-  former  glory,  which  was  pure  light. 
Up!  haste  thee  to  the  Land  of  Iran,  wliicii  thirsteth  after 
the  Law,  and  say,  thus  sayetli  Ormuzd:  'Thou,  0  Iran, 
which  I  created  pure,  and  radiant  in  brightness,  shalt  re- 
store to  me  my  ancient  glory.  Thou  shalt  utterly  uproot 
all  impui'e  thoughts ;  all  kinds  of  death,  all  sorcery,  all 
evil  shalt  thou  dcstrny.'  " 

The  Eternal  One  had  from  the  beo-innino;  limited  the 
duration  of  time  to  twelve  thousand  years.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  activity  and  beiieficence  of  the  Spirits  of  Light, 
Arimanes  would  often  have  the  mastery,  especially  in  the 
latter  time.  But  pure  souls  have  nothing  to  fear.  The 
Eternal  has  decreed  the  ultimate  triumph  of  good,     AYhen 


264  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

the  earth  seems  most  afflicted  with  evil,  he  will  send  pro- 
phets to  succour  the  distressed,  and  reveal  to  mortals  the 
heavenly  light.  Finally,  the  whole  world  will  become 
converted  to  the  worship  of  Zoroaster.  Men  will  cease  to 
eat  meat,  and  live  on  milk  and  fruit ;  afterward,  they  v/ill 
sustain  themselves  on  water  only  ;  at  last,  the}^  will  become 
so  ethereal,  that  they  will  take  no  nourishment  whatsoever, 
and  yet  not  die. 

At  the  appointed  time,  the  Ized  Serosch  will  summon  the 
Holy  One  to  appear,  whose  mission  it  is  to  judge  the 
wicked  and  the  good,  and  I'estore  the  world  to  its  primeval 
beaut}'-.  He  will  bring  all  the  world  to  the  worship  of 
Zoroaster,  and  establish  universal  peace  and  happiness. 
At  his  command,  bodies  will  rise  from  their  graves.  Souls 
will  know  them,  and  will  say :  "  That  is  my  father,  or  my 
brother,  my  wife,  or  my  sister."  The  wicked  will  say  to 
the  good:  "Wherefore,  when  I  was  in  the  world,  did  you 
not  teach  me  to  act  righteously  ?  O,  ye  pure  ones,  it  is 
because  you  have  not  instructed  me,  that  I  am  excluded 
from  the  assembly  of  the  blest." 

Each  one  will  be  judged  according  to  his  works.  The 
good  father  may  have  a  wicked  daughter,  and  of  two 
sisters,  one  may  be  pure  and  the  other  impure.  The  good 
will  weep  over  the  evil,  and  the  evil  will  weep  over  tliem- 
selves.  A  star  with  a  tail,  in  the  course  of  its  revolutions, 
will  strike  the  earth,  and  set  it  on  lire.  The  tierce  heat 
will  make  metals  run  down  from  high  mountains  and  flow 
over  the  earth  like  rivers.  All  men  must  pass  through 
them.  To  the  good  they  will  be  like  batlis  of  warni  milk ; 
to  the  wicked  they  will  be  like  torrents  of  lava.  But  tiiey 
will  be  purified  through  fire,  and  come  forth  excellent  and 
hajipy.  Arimanes  and  his  imps  will  be  driven  by  Good 
Spirits  through  the  burning  torrents  of  melted  metal,  that 
they  may  become  purified  also.  Even  they  will  at  hist 
fcicl  the  overpowering  influence  of  goodness,  and  will  pros- 
trate themselves  beCore  Orinuzd,  who  will  accept  their  re- 
pentance and  forgive  them  freely.  These  redeemed  Spirits 
will  join  mankind  in  a  universal  chorus  of  praise  to  the 


ClIALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  265 

Eternal  Source  of  light  and  blessing.  Fathers  and  sons, 
sisters  and  friends,  will  unite  to  aid  each  other  in  good 
works.  They  will  cast  no  shadows,  all  speak  one  language, 
and  live  together  in  one  harmonious  society.  The  level 
and  fruitful  earth  will  be  clothed  with  renovated  beauty, 
and  innocence  and  joy  will  everj' where  prevail.  After 
that,  Ormuzd  will  repose  for  a  while. 

Such  is  the  account  given  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of 
the  ancient  Persians,  called  the  Zend-Avesta.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  concise  statement  of  the  moral  teaching  therein 
contained  :  "  Worship,  with  humility  and  reverence,  Or- 
muzd, the  giver  of  blessings,  and  all  the  Spirits,  to  whose 
care  he  has  intrusted  the  universe.  Men  ought  reverently 
to  salute  the  Sun,  and  praise  him,  but  not  pay  him  reli- 
gious worship." 

"  Obey  strictly  all  the  laws  given  to  Zoroaster." 
"  Kings  are  animated  by  a  more  ethereal  fire  than  other 
mortals  ;  such  fire  as  exists  in  the  upper  spheres.  Ormuzd 
established  the  king  to  nourish  and  solace  the  poor.  He  is 
to  his  people  what  Ormuzd  is  to  this  earth.  It  is  the  duty 
of  subjects  to  obey  him  implicitly." 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  children  to  obey  their  parents  ;  for 
wives  to  obey  their  husbands." 

"  Treat  old  age  with  great  reverence  and  tenderness." 
"  Multiply  the  human  species,  and  increase  its  happiness." 
"Cultivate  the  soil,  drain  marshes,  and  destroy  danger- 
ous creatures.     He  who  sows  the  ground  with  diligence 
acquires  a  greater  stock  of  religious  merit  than  he  could 
gain  by  ten  thousand  prayers  in  idleness." 

"  Multiply  domestic  animals,  nourish  them,  and  treat 
them  gently." 

"  Warriors  whc  defend  the  right,  deserve  praise." 
"  Do  not  ailow  thyself  to  be  carried  away  by  anger. 
Angry  words,  and  scornful  looks,  are  sins.  To  strike  a 
man,  or  vex  him  with  words,  is  a  sin.  Even  the  intention 
to  strike  another,  merits  punishment.  Opposition  to  peace 
is  a  sin.     Heply  to  thine  enemy  with  gentleness." 

"Avoid  everything  calculated  to  injure  others.     Have 
Vol.  I.— 23  m 


266  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

no  companionship  with  a  man  who  injures  his  neighbour." 

"  Take  not  that  which  belongs  to  another," 

"  Be  not  envious,  avaricious,  proud,  or  vain.  Envy  and 
jealousy  are  the  work  of  Evil  Spirits.  Haughty  thoughts 
and  thirst  of  gold  are  sins." 

"  To  refuse  hospitality,  and  not  to  succour  the  poor,  are 
sins." 

"  Obstinacy  in  maintaining  a  lie  is  a  sin.  Be  very  scru- 
pulous to  observe  the  truth  in  all  things." 

"  Abstain  from  thy  neighbour's  wife.  Fornication  and 
immodest  looks  are  sins.  Avoid  licentiousness,  because  it 
is  one  of  the  readiest  means  to  give  Evil  Spirits  power  over 
body  and  soul.  Strive,  therefore,  to  keep  pure  in  body 
and  mind,  and  thus  prevent  the  entrance  of  Evil  Spii'its, 
who  are  always  trying  to  gain  possession  of  man.  To 
think  evil  is  a  sin." 

"  Contend  constantly  against  evil,  morally  and  physi- 
cally, internally  and  externally.  Strive  in  every  way  to 
diminish  the  power  of  Arimanes  and  destroy  his  works. 
If  a  man  has  done  this,  he  may  fearlessly  meet  death  ;  well 
assured  that  radiant  Izeds  will  lead  him  across  the  lumi- 
nous bridge,  into  a  paradise  of  eternal  happiness.  But 
though  he  has  been  brave  in  battle,  killed  wild  beasts, 
and  fought  with  all  manner  of  external  evils,  if  he  has 
neglected  to  combat  evil  within  himself,  he  has  reason  to 
fear  that  Arimanes  and  his  Devs  will  seize  him,  and  carry 
him  to  Duzakh,  (hell,)  where  he  will  be  punished  according 
to  his  sins;  not  to  satisfy  the  vengeance  of  Oi'inuzd,  but 
because  having  connected  himself  with  evil,  this  is  the  only 
means  of  becoming  purified  therefrom,  so  as  to  be  capable 
of  enjoying  happiness  at  a  future  period." 

"  Every  man  who  is  pure  in  thoughts,  words,  and  actions, 
will  go  to  the  celestial  regions.  Every  man  who  is  evil  in 
thoughts,  words,  or  actions,  will  go  to  the  place  of  the 
wi(;kcd." 

"  All  good  thoughts,  words,  or  actions,  arc  the  produc- 
tions of  the  celestial  world." 

There  is  a  work  called  The  Sadder,  written  for  popular 


CHALDEA   AND    PERSIA.  267 

use,  by  a  Magus,  much  later  than  Zoroaster,  As  usual 
■with  all  religions  as  they  grow  older,  there  is  a  departure 
from  primitive  simplicity.  This  book  contains  few  moral 
precepts,  and  directions  for  innumerable  ceremonies,  ac- 
companied with  unconditional  obedience  to  priests.  It 
declares :  "  Though  your  good  works  exceed  in  number 
the  leaves,  the  drops  of  rain,  the  stars  in  the  sky,  or  the 
sands  on  the  sea-shore,  they  will  be  unprofitable  to  you, 
unless  they  are  accepted  by  the  priests.  To  obtain  the 
acceptation  of  these  guides  to  salvation,  you  must  faithfully 
pay  them  tithes  of  all  you  possess  ;  of  your  goods,  of  your 
lands,  and  of  your  money.  If  the  priests  be  satisfied,  your 
soul  will  escape  hell-tortures ;  you  will  secure  praise  in 
this  world,  and  happiness  in  the  next.  For  the  teachers  of 
religion  know  all  things,  and  can  deliver  all  men."  This 
book  represents  Arimaues  as  being  annihilated,  instead  of 
restored. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Zend-Avesta  is  filled  with  pray- 
ers, of  which  the  following  are  samples :  "  I  address  my 
prayer  to  Ormuzd,  Creator  of  all  things  ;  who  always  has 
been,  who  is,  and  who  will  be  forever ;  who  is  wise  and 
powerful ;  who  made  the  great  arch  of  heaven,  the  sun, 
moon,  stars,  winds,  clouds,  water,  earth,  fire,  trees,  animals, 
metals,  and  men ;  whom  Zoroaster  adored.  Zoroaster,  who 
brought  to  the  world  knowledge  of  the  law  ;  who  knew  by 
natural  intelligence,  and  by  the  ear,  what  ought  to  be  done, 
all  that  has  been,  all  that  is,  and  all  that  will  be ;  the  sci- 
ence of  sciences,  the  excellent  Word,  by  which  souls  pass 
the  luminous  and  radiant  bridge,  separate  themselves  from 
the  evil  regions,  and  go  to  light  and  holy  dwellings,  full 
of  fragrance.  O  Creator,  I  obey  thy  laws.  I  think,  act, 
speak,  according  to  thy  orders.  I  separate  m3'self  from  all 
sin.  I  do  good  works  according  to  my  power.  I  adore 
thee  with  purity  of  thought,  word,  and  action.  I  pray  to 
Ormuzd,  who  recompenses  good  works,  who  delivers  unto 
the  end  all  those  who  obey  his  laws.  Grant  that  I  may 
arrive  at  Paradise,  where  all  is  fragrance,  light,  and  happi- 
ness." 


268  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

"  O  Ormuzd,  pardon  the  repentant  sinner.  As  I,  when 
a  man  irritates  me  by  his  thoughts,  words,  or  actions,  car- 
ried awa}',  or  not  carried  away,  by  his  passions,  if  he  hum- 
bles himself  before  me,  and  addresses  to  me  his  prayer,  I 
become  his  friend." 

"  Grant,  O  Ormuzd,  that  my  good  works  may  exceed 
my  sins.  Give  me  a  part  in  all  good  actions  and  all  holy 
words." 

"  I  pray  to  Mithras,  who  has  a  thousand  ears  and  ten 
thousand  eyes  ;  who  never  sleeps,  who  is  always  watchful 
and  attentive,  who  renders  barren  lands  fertile." 

"  Thou  Fire,  son  of  Ormuzd,  brilliant  and  beneficent, 
given  by  Ormuzd,  be  favourable  to  me." 

"  I  pray  to  the  New  Moon,  holy,  pure,  and  great.  I 
pray  to  the  Full  Moon,  holy,  pure,  and  great.  I  gaze  at 
the  Moon  which  is  on  high,  I  honour  the  light  of  the 
Moon.  The  Moon  is  a  blessed  Spirit  created  by  Ormuzd, 
to  bestow  light  and  glory  on  the  earth." 

"  I  invoke  the  Source  of  Waters,  holy,  pure,  and  great, 
coming  from  the  throne  of  Ormuzd,  from  the  high  moun- 
tain, holy,  pure,  and 'great." 

"I  invoke  the  sweet  Earth.  I  invoke  the  Mountains, 
abode  of  happiness,  given  by  Ormuzd,  holy,  pure,  and 
great." 

The  Word  spoken  by  Ormuzd,  through  whose  agency 
creation  was  produced,  was  called  Honover,  and  invoked 
as  the  Great  Primal  Spirit. 

In  all  their  prayers  and  religious  ceremonies,  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  turn  towards  the  sun.  When  they  invoked  tlie 
stars,  the  elements,  or  any  visible  objects,  they  affirmed 
that  their  worship  was  not  directed  to  them,  but  to  the 
Spirits  residing  in  them,  whom  they  were  bound  to  revere 
as  the  benevolent  creations  of  Ormuzd.  In  his  name  all 
their  prayers  and  ceremonies  began  and  ended.  Of  all 
places  on  earth,  mountains  were  considered  most  holy. 
liivers  were  sacred,  and  they  never  allowed  them  to  be 
polluted  by  blood,  or  anything  unclean.  Tlie  Euphrates, 
which  annually  overflows  and  fertilizes  the  country,  they 


CHALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  269 

regarded  witli  especial  reverence,  and  paid  homage  to  it, 
as  Egyptians  did  to  tlie  Nile.  All  good  men,  useful  ani- 
mals, salutary  plants,  and  luminous  objects,  belonged  to 
Ormuzd.  All  wicked,  ferocious,  poisonous  things,  and  all 
dark  places,  belonged  to  Arimanes.  They  expressed  their 
detestation  of  this  Evil  One  in  all  manner  of  ways.  When 
they  had  occasion  to  write  his  name,  they  always  wrote  it 
backward,  and  turned  the  letters  upside  down.  They  con- 
sidered a  dragon  the  representative  of  him.  They  som.e- 
times  sacrificed  to  him  and  his  Spirits,  in  order  to  pacify 
their  rage,  avert  dangers,  or  procure  injury  to  enemies; 
but  it  was  not  lawful  to  eat  the  meat  of  animals  thus  sacri- 
ficed. When  Xerxes  prayed  that  it  might  be  put  into  the 
minds  of  nations  at  enmity  with  Persia  to  drive  away  their 
best  and  bravest  men,  as  the  Athenians  had  exiled  Themis- 
tocles,  he  addressed  the  prayer  to  Arimanes,  not  to  Ormuzd. 
For  oblations  to  Evil  Spirits,  they  pounded  plants  that 
grew  in  deeply-shaded  places,  mixed  them  with  the  blood 
of  a  wolf,  and  threw  it  into  some  dark  hole  where  the 
sun  never  shone. 

Persian  priests  were  called  Magi.  At  first  they  were 
few  in  number,  but  afterward  became  numerous  and 
powerful.  The  Archi magus,  or  High  Priest,  was  revered 
as  the  visible  head  of  the  church,  and  the  lawful  successor 
of  Zoroaster.  He  resided  at  Balch,  which  was  regarded 
as  a  holy  city.  They  said  the  identical  fire  from  heaven, 
brought  by  Zoroaster  himself  from  the  flaming  moun- 
tain, where  he  received  the  sacred  Book  of  Laws,  was  there 
preserved  in  the  temple.  Grand  solemnities  and  religious 
festivals  were  celebrated  there,  and  it  was  deemed  an  in- 
dispensable duty  for  every  man  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
thither  at  least  once  in  his  life.  Each  district  had  a  super- 
intending priest,  who  ranked  next  to  the  High  Priest.  A 
third  class  performed  the  common  offices  of  worship  in 
towns  and  villages.  A  large  tract  of  the  most  fertile  land 
was  appropriated  to  the  Magi ;  and  citizens  were  required 
to  give  a  tenth  of  their  income  for  their  support,  and  the 
expenses  attending  religious  ceremonies.  Kings  could  not 
Vol.  I.— 2a* 


270  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  royal  office  till  they  had 
been  enrolled  among  the  Magi,  and  instructed  in  their  mys- 
teries. They  had  sole  charge  of  the  public  records,  and 
the  education  of  youth.  No  other  persons  were  allowed 
to  explain  the  Sacred  Books,  or  perform  religious  ceremo- 
nies, A  class  of  them  were  Prophets.  When  they  pro- 
phesied, they  said  the  air  was  full  of  visions,  which  infused 
themselves  subtly  into  their  eyes.  It  was  believed  they 
could  predict  weather,  and  foretell  future  events  from  the 
aspect  of  the  stars;  that,  by  certain  ceremonies  and  holy 
words,  they  could  cast  Evil  Spirits  out  of  the  diseased  ;  and 
recite  spells  that  would  impart  supernatural  virtue  to  stones, 
plants,  and  scraps  of  writing.  In  the  later  times,  kings 
sometimes  caused  them  to  be  put  to  death  for  misinterpret- 
ing dreams  and  uttering  false  prophecies. 

The  Magi  were  required  to  be  of  good  moral  character, 
in  sound  health,  and  free  from  any  personal  deformity. 
Hindoo  and  Egyptian  priests  considered  it  necessary,  in 
order  to  preserve  their  sanctity,  never  to  come  in  contact 
with  blood,  except  that  of  animals  slain  for  sacrifice  ;  but 
Persian  priests  were  not  considered  polluted  by  killing 
anything,  except  a  human  being,  or  a  dog.  In  primitive 
times  they  were  very  simple  in  their  habits.  They  dressed 
in  plain  white  robes,  and  wore  no  ornaments.  They  slept 
on  the  ground,  and  lived  on  bread,  cheese,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables. Afterward,  when  people  brought  animals  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  gods,  the  priests  were  accustomed  to  feast 
upon  the  flesh;  it  being  their  doctrine  that  the  soul  of  the 
animal  was  the  part  most  appropriate  to  deities.  It  was 
unlawful  to  touch  the  sacrifice,  or  approach  the  altar,  till 
they  had  poured  upon  it  consecrated  liquors,  and  repeated 
prescribed  words. 

They  worshipped  Fire  with  peculiar  reverence,  because 
they  thought  it  represented,  though  imperfectly,  the  original 
fire  from  Ormuzd,  the  vital  princii)le  of  life  and  motion  ; 
also,  because  it  was  the  most  purifying  of  all  things.  They 
never  allowed  dead  bodies  to  be  burned  ;  that  being  con- 
sidered a  pollution  of  the  sacred  clomcnt.     A  fire  was  kept 


CHALDEA   AND   TERSIA.  271 

continually  burning  on  all  their  altars.  It  was  originally 
kincllfd  in  the  temple  at  Balch,  at  the  snored  flame  brought 
from  the  burning  mountain  by  Zoroaster  himself;  and  it  was 
never  after  allowed  to  go  out.  The  Magi  watched  it  alter- 
nately, night  and  day.  They  fed  it  with  fragrant  sandal-wood, 
first  stripped  of  its  bark,  to  ascertain  that  it  was  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  insects.  Sometimes  they  threw  in  gar- 
lands as  an  offering,  and  if  the  fire  languished,  they  poured  on 
consecrated  aromatic  oil,  accompanying  the  ceremony  with 
prayers  and  music  of  the  double  flute.  When  the  king 
went  forth  to  battle,  the  Magi  carried  a  portion  of  the 
Sacred  Fire,  on  silver  censers,  in  front  of  the  army.  Who- 
ever cast  any  dirt  into  it,  or  blowed  upon  it  with  his 
breath,  was  put  to  death,  because  breath,  coming  from  the 
interior  of  the  body,  was  deemed  inipure. 

They  consecrated  vegetables,  fruit  and  flowers,  and  of- 
fered them  in  very  clean  places,  as  oblations  to  the  souls 
of  departed  ancestors.  Animals  for  sacrifice  were  ci'owned 
with  garlands.  To  Mithras  they  sacrificed  beautiful  white 
horses,  richly  caparisoned,  because  that  free  and  vigorous 
animal  was  considered  an  appro})riate  emblem  of  the  sun. 
They  buried  human  beings  alive,  as  an  offering  to  a  deity 
whom  they  supposed  to  exist  under  the  earth.  Herodotus 
speaks  of  nine  youths  and  nine  virgins  thus  sacrificed,  and 
he  says  it  was  a  common  custom  in  Pei'sia. 

They  had  religious  festivals  of  gratitude  for  spring  titne 
and  harvest.  Every  year,  during  one  of  these  festivals, 
kings  and  princes  set  aside  their  pomp  and  mingled  freely 
with  the  humblest  of  their  subjects.  They  received  all 
petitions,  and  inquired  personally  into  the  grievances  of 
the  poor.  Before  they  sat  down  to  feast,  the  monarch  was 
accustomed  to  say:  "From  your  labours  we  receive  sub- 
sistence, and  you  are  protected  by  our  vigilance.  Since, 
therefore,  we  are  mutually  necessary  to  each  other,  let  us 
live  together  like  brothers,  in  concord  and  love."  Indivi- 
duals frequently  employed  the  priests  to  offer  sacrifices  or 
oblations,  on  birth-days,  or  the  anniversaries  of  deceased 
aucestor.s,  or  other  occasions  connected  with  their  own  in- 


272  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS, 

terests  or  affections,  })ut  no  man  was  allowed  to  sacrifice  or 
pray  for  himself,  or  his  own  family  alone;  he  was  required 
to  include  the  whole  nation  in  his  supplications.  One  of 
their  festivals  was  called  The  Destruction  of  Evils,  because 
during  its  observance  the  Magi  destroyed  ferocious  beasts, 
venomous  reptiles,  and  poisonous  plants;  reciting,  mean- 
while, many  formulas  to  expel  Evil  Spirits. 

Their  most  splendid  ceremonials  were  in  honor  of 
Mithras,  called  the  Mediator.  They  kept  his  birth-day, 
with  many  rejoicings,  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  December, 
when  the  sun  perceptibly  begins  to  return  northward, 
after  his  long  winter  journey ;  and  they  had  another  festival 
at  the  vernal  equinox.  Perhaps  no  religious  festival  was 
ever  more  splendid  than  the  annual  Salutation  of  Mithras, 
during  which  forty  days  were  set  apart  for  thanksgiving 
and  sacrifice.  The  procession  to  salute  the  god  formed 
long  before  the  rising  of  the  sun.  The  High  Priest  was 
followed  by  a  long  train  of  the  Magi,  in  spotless  white 
robes,  chanting  hymns,  and  carrying  the  Sacred  Fire  on 
silver  censers.  Then  came  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
youths  in  scarlet,  to  represent  the  days  of  the  year,  and  the 
colour  of  fire.  These  were  followed  by  the  Chariot  of  the 
Sun,  empty,  decorated  with  garlands,  and  drawn  by  superb 
white  horses  harnessed  with  pure  gold.  Then  came  a 
white  horse  of  magnificent  size,  his  forehead  blazing  with 
gems,  in  honour  of  Mithras.  Close  behind  him  rode  the 
king,  in  a  chariot  of  ivory  inlaid  with  gold,  followed  by 
his  royal  kindred  in  embroidered  garments,  and  a  long 
train  of  nobles  riding  on  camels  richly  caparisoned.  This 
gorgeous  retinue,  facing  the  east,  slowly  ascended  Mount 
Orontes.  Arrived  at  the  summit,  the  High  Priest  assumed 
his  tiara  wreathed  with  myrtle,  and  hailed  the  first  rays 
of  the  rising  sun  with  incense  and  })rayer.  The  other 
Magi  gradually  joined  him  in  singing  hymns  to  Ormuzd, 
the  source  of  all  blessing,  by  whom  the  radiant  Mithras 
had  been  sent  to  gladden  the  earth  and  preserve  the  prin- 
ciple of   li(e.     FiiuUly,   they  all  joined   in   one   universal 


CIIALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  273 

chorus  of  praise,  wliile  kinsr,  jirinccs  and  nobles  prostrated 
themselves  before  the  orb  of  day. 

Persians  did  not  represent  Ormuzd  as  assisted  in  the 
work  of  creation  by  a  feminine  companion,  and  they  dis- 
liked descriptions  of  that  kind  in  other  religions.  They 
had  likewise  great  abiiorrence  of  images,  and  lest  they 
should  be  introduced  from  foreign  nations,  they  forbade  the 
exercise  of  any  other  worship  than  that  of  Zoroaster,  under 
the  severest  penalties.  .  In  the  beginning  they  always 
worshipped  in  the  open  air,  from  an  idea  that  it  was  im- 
pious to  enclose  the  deity  within  walls;  but,  in  after  times, 
they  erected  several  temples,  and  had  numerous  small 
oratories  for  the  people  to  go  in  and  pray,  where  the  Sacred 
Fire  was  kept  burning  only  in  lamps.  Sects  sprung  up 
and  disputed  about  the  origin  of  evil,  and  various  other 
questions,  each  striving  to  sustain  its  creed  b}^  texts  from 
the  Zend-Avesta.  Some  maintained  that  Arimanes  was 
co-eternal  with  Ormuzd ;  others  affirmed  that  only  light 
and  goodness  flowed  from  the  Source  of  Being,  that  dark- 
ness and  evil  merelj''  followed  them  as  a  shadow  does  the 
substance.  In  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes,  divisions  of  opinion 
had  multiplied  into  seventy-two  sects,  beside  a  class  of  un- 
believers, who  ridiculed  them  all.  The  king  summoned 
the  Magi  from  all  parts  of  his  dominions,  to  the  number 
of  forty  thousand.  From  these  four  thousand  of  the 
worthiest  were  selected;  these  were  again  sifted  down  to 
four  hundred,  to  forty,  and  finally  to  seven.  Among 
these  the  pre-eminent  for  holiness  was  Erdiviraph.  Having 
performed  ablutions  and  other  religious  ceremonies,  he 
drank  a  powerful  opiate,  was  covered  with  white  linen, 
and  laid  down  to  sleep,  that  he  might  receive  divipe  rev- 
elations in  dreams.  The  king  and  six  nobles  watched  by 
him  while  he  slept  seven  days  and  nights.  AVhen  he 
awoke,  he  declared  what  was  truly  the  religion  taught  by 
the  Zend-Avesta,  This  was  carefully  written  down  by  an 
attendant  scribe.  The  people  received  it  as  a  divine  rev 
elation,  believing  that  his  soul  had  been  in  heaven  and 
received  direct  instruction  from  Ormuzd. 


271  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

The  religion  of  Persia  had  always  been  very  uncompro- 
mising, and  intolerant  toward  other  nations  ;  principally 
owing  to  their  abhorrence  of  image-worship.  When  Cam- 
bjses  invaded  Egypt,  he  mutilated  the  statues  of  the  gods, 
and  insulted  the  sacred  symbols.  Babylon  having  become 
a  province  of  the  Persian  empire,  by  conquest,  Xerxes  de- 
stroyed the  images  of  the  gods,  and  put  their  priesthood  to 
death.  After  Artaxerxes  restored  the  national  religion,  by 
an  express  revelation  from  Ormuzd  to  the  holiest  of  the 
Magi,  his  desire  to  preserve  the  national  unity  led  to  a 
very  strict  exclusion  of  all  other  forms  of  fxith.  The 
adoption  of  foreign  gods,  so  very  common  among  the  na- 
tions, was  strenuously  resisted  by  the  Persians.  But  never- 
theless causes  were  at  work  to  produce  gradual  changes. 
The  union  of  the  Babylonian  empire  with  the  Persian 
brought  in  many  Chaldean  customs  and  ideas.  Mixture 
with  the  Greeks,  by  war  and  commerce,  and  the  final  re- 
duction of  Persia  to  a  Eoman  province,  introduced  a  flood 
of  foreign  innovations.  Temples  were  erected,  and,  not- 
withstanding their  abhorrence  of  images,  the  statue  of  the 
goddess  Astarte  was  set  up  and  worshipped  in  many 
places,  under  the  name  of  Mithra.  In  the  latter  times,  an 
order  of  priestesses  was  likewise  instituted,  vowed  to  celi- 
bacy, and  dedicated  to  the  service  of  Mithras.  But  not- 
withstanding these  unsettling  influences,  the  greater  part 
of  the  Persians  clang  with  tenacious  affection  to  the  faith 
of  Zoroaster. 

When  Mahometans  conquered  Persia,  in  the  seventh 
century  of  our  era,  followers  of  the  old  faith  passed  through 
very  severe  sufferings.  But  at  last,  when  the  new  power 
became  firmly  established,  a  fragment  of  them,  consisting 
of  about  eighty  thousand  families,  were  allowed  to  settle  in 
one  of  the  most  barren  provinces  of  Persia,  to  build  a  new 
temple,  and  worship  in  their  own  way.  A  few  are  scat- 
tered about  elsewhere,  but  they  arc  always  obliged  to  live 
in  suburbs  by  themselves,  and  are  em})loyed  only  in  the 
meanest  offices.  They  make  many  ])ilgrimages  to  Mount 
Elboui-z,  the  residence  of  their  High   Priest,  whom   they 


CIIALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  275 

regard  as  an  oracle.  Their  conquerors  contemptuously 
name  them  Ghebers,  or  Giaours,  which  means  inlidels, 
but  they  call  themselves  Behendie,  signifying  followers  of 
the  true  faith.  Europeans  generally  style  them  Fire  Wor- 
shippers ;  but  they  say  they  merely  adoi'e  fire  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  an  invisible  Spirit,  whom  they  call  Yerd. 
They  keep  a  fire  burning  in  their  consecrated  places,  which 
they  believe  was  kindled  by  Zoroaster  four  thousand  years 
ago.  They  often  build  their  temples  over  subterranean 
fires.  Upon  their  altars,  they  have  spheres  to  represent 
the  sun.  When  the  sun  rises,  these  orbs  light  up,  and 
turn  round  with  great  noise.  The  ignorant  attribute  this 
to  magic.  Some  of  them  reside  on  the  shores  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  about  ten  miles  from  a  source  of  perpetual  fire, 
which  they  hold  in  great  veneration.  It  issues  from  the 
cleft  of  a  rock,  and  appears  like  the  clear  blue  flame  of 
burning  alcohol.  Sometimes  it  rises  several  yards ;  at 
others,  only  a  few  inches  above  the  aperture.  It  has  been 
burning  thus  for  ages,  without  intermission,  and  the  rock 
is  neither  consumed  nor  changed  in  colour.  When  trav- 
ellers insert  a  hollow  tube  in  the  ground,  for  several  hun- 
dred yards  round  this  rock,  a  similar  fire  issues  through 
the  tube.  Some  suppose  the  story  of  Zoroaster's  burning 
mountain  originated  in  this,  or  a  similar  phenomenon. 

Some  of  his  followers,  in  time  of  Mahometan  persecution, 
fled  eastward  to  India,  told  their  story,  and  humbly  begged 
permission  to  stay.  A  Hindoo  rajah  took  compassion  on 
them,  and  allowed  them  to  build  a  temple  for  the  Sacred 
Fire,  which  they  had  carefully  brought  with  them.  They 
remain  there  in  considerable  numbers  to  this  day,  under 
the  name  of  Parsees.  They  are  a  poor,  harmless  people, 
industrious  in  their  habits,  rigorous  in  morals,  and  honest 
in  their  dealings.  They  worship  but  one  God,  and  detest 
idols.  They  consider  Zoroaster  the  highest  of  prophets, 
but  have  also  great  reverence  for  Abraham,  and  often  call 
their  own  fliith  the  religion  of  Abraham.  The  Sacred  Fire 
they  carried  from  Persia,  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago, 
has  never  been  extinguished.     The}"  preserve  it  witli  the 


276  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

utmost  veneration  in  their  temple  at  Oodwara.  In  all 
their  other  temples  is  a  sacred  flame,  lighted  from  this,  and 
carefully  watched  by  priests,  who  pray  with  mouths  cov- 
ered, lest  their  breath  should  pollute  the  holy  element. 
The  Parsees  never  blow  out  a  light,  but  always  extinguish 
it  by  a  fan,  or  motions  of  the  hand.  Priests  spend  their 
whole  time  reading  prayers,  chanting  hymns,  burning  in- 
cense, and  perfoi'ming  prescribed  ceremonies.  Devotional 
exercises  mingle  more  or  less  with  almost  every  action  of 
life,  among  this  simple  people.  "  May  my  prayer  be  pleas- 
ing to  Ormuzd,"  is  the  preface  to  every  petition.  They 
have  prayers  for  the  new  moon,  for  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  moon,  and  for  the  decline  of  the  moon  ;  but  they  are 
especially  enjoined  to  pray  often  during  the  growth  of  the 
moon.  They  employ  priests  to  recite  many  formulas  to 
guard  their  crops  from  malign  influences  ;  and  they  them- 
selves utter  continual  invocations  to  Spirits  of  the  sun, 
moon,  earth,  and  waters,  to  render  their  harvests  abundant. 
Every  day,  they  pray  to  the  particular  Spirit  supposed  to 
preside  over  that  day.  They  wash  and  recite  a  prayer  be- 
fore and  after  eating.  They  pray  when  they  retire  to  rest ; 
when  they  rise  in  the  morning ;  when  they  turn  in  bed, 
toward  a  fire,  or  burning  lamp,  or  moon,  or  star ;  when 
they  light  a  lamp,  or  see  one  lighted  ;  when  they  cut  their 
nails,  or  their  hair ;  and  on  many  other  occasions,  which 
it  would  hardly  be  consistent  with  decorum  to  mention. 
They  are  forbidden  to  speak  while  they  eat,  or  while  they 
perform  any  of  the  natural  functions;  because  Evil  Spirits 
seek  to  distract  mortals,  and  insinuate  themselves  into  the 
body  while  the  senses  are  busily  occupied.  When  a  jierson 
•sneezes,  they  consider  it  a  sign  that  the  Evil  Spirits,  always 
striving  to  gain  possession  of  man,  are  driven  out  by  the 
interior  fire  that  animates  him.  Therefore,  whenever  they 
hear  a  sneeze,  they  say  :  "  Blessed  be  Ormuzd  1"  In  the 
chamber  where  a  babe  is  born,  they  kec])  a  fire  burning 
continually,  because  Evil  Spirits  are  afraid  to  approach 
that  sacred  element.  Those,  who  can  allbrd  it,  keep  four 
priests  employed  three  days  and  thn>e  nights,  praying  and 


CIIALDEA   AND    PERSIA.  277 

performing  ceremonies  for  the  temporal  and  eternal  welfare 
of  the  child.  It  is  washed  three  times,  with  water  pre- 
viously consecrated  by  various  forms  of  blessing  and  prayer. 
AVhoever  touches  the  new-born  before  this  ablution,  must 
go  through  a  process  of  purification.  Some  parents  still 
consult  the  priests  concerning  the  aspect  of  the  stars  at  the 
birth  of  their  offspring.  When  a  child  is  frightened,  or 
has  a  fit,  or  is  troubled  with  any  disease,  they  obtain  from 
the  priests,  a  spell  thus  worded,  and  tie  it  on  his  left  arm  : 
"  In  the  name  of  Ormiizd,  I  bind  this  fever,  and  all  other 
evils  produced  by  Arimanes  and  his  wicked  Spirits,  by 
magicians,  or  by  Peris.  I  bind  these  evils  by  the  power 
and  beauty  of  fire  ;  by  the  power  and  beauty  of  the  planets 
and  fixed  stars."  Peris  are  supposed  to  be  descendants  of 
fallen  Spirits,  doomed  to  wander  about  the  earth,  and  ex- 
cluded from  Paradise,  till  their  penance  is  accomplished. 
When  a  man  has  a  fever,  or  any  other  malady,  they  recite 
prayers  similar  to  the  above,  clapping  the  hands  seven 
times.  It  is  supposed  that  Evil  Spirits  enter  a  lifeless  body 
as  soon  as  the  animating  fire  from  Ormuzd  has  gone  out  of 
it.  Therefore,  whoever  touches  a  corpse,  even  accidentallv, 
must  purify  himself  by  ablutions,  prayers,  and  ceremonies. 
On  stated  occasions,  they  offer  oblations  of  flowers,  fruit, 
rice,  wine,  and  sometimes  meat,  to  the  souls  of  departed 
ancestors,  and  employ  priests  to  accompany  them  with 
prayers.  During  the  last  ten  days  of  the  year,  they  believe 
the  spirits  of  the  dead  come  to  earth  and  visit  their  rela- 
tives ;  therefore  they  never  leave  their  homes  at  that 
season.  They  have  their  houses  purified  by  religious  cere- 
monies, and  ornamented  with  garlands  for  their  reception. 
Intelligent  Ghebers  and  Parsees  acknowledge  that  the 
original  Zend-Avesta  was  lost  in  the  course  of  their  various 
wars  and  migrations.  Scattered  fragments  were  collected 
and  published,  and  to  this  day  it  is  regarded  with  great 
veneration,  as  a  book  from  heaven.  A  copy  is  kept  in 
every  temple,  and  portions  of  it  are  read  to  the  people  at 
stated  times.  Anquetil  du  Perron,  a  zealous  Oriental 
scholar,  spent  several  years  among  the  Parsees,  and  trans- 
VoL.  I.— 24 


278  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

lated  into  Frencli  a  part  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  wliicli  waa 
published  in  1771.  The  learned  men  of  Europe  generally 
acknov.dedge  it  as  the  ancient  Zend-Avesta  and  an  au- 
thentic record  of  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster. 

The  priesthood  is  not  hereditary  among  the  Parsees. 
The  son  of  the  poorest  labourer  may  be  educated  for  the 
sacred  office.  But  these  simple  devotional  people  regard 
their  religious  teachers  with  the  utmost  veneration.  They 
are  considered  polluted  by  the  touch  of  foreigners,  or  even 
by  men  of  their  own  faith.  If  a  phj'sician  cures  a  priest 
of  any  dangerous  illness,  he  is  considered  amply  repaid  by 
his  prayers,  so  very  efficacious  are  they  deemed.  Before 
reciting  a  prayer,  the  priests  always  wash  their  hands, 
saying:  "I  repent  of  all  my  sins.  I  renounce  them." 
To  render  their  supplications  more  powerful,  they  use  a 
formula  to  unite  them  with  all  souls  who  have  ever  been 
pleasing  to  Ormuzd,  or  ever  will  be  so,  till  the  day  of  resur- 
rection. The  priest  also  declares  that  he  takes  part  in  all 
the  good  actions  of  all  the  just,  who  have  ever  lived  in  the 
world,  and  that  he  joins  his  actions  to  theirs.  This  com- 
munion of  prayers  is  everywhere  conspicuous  in  all  their 
ceremonies.  The  ancient  doctrine  concerning  Arimanes 
has  become  modified.  They  now  teach  that  he  was  an  in- 
ferior Spirit,  who  rebelled  against  Ormuzd,  his  Creator. 
A  spirit  of  benevolence  pervades  their  maxims.  Their 
writings  declare  "  there  is  no  greater  crime  than  to  buy 
grain  and  keep  it  till  it  becomes  dear.  He  who  pursues 
this  course,  renders  himself  responsible  for  all  the  famine 
and  rriisery  in  the  world." 

Of  all  known  religions,  that  of  the  Parsees  is  the  only 
one  in  which  fosting  and  celibacy  are  never  enjoined  as 
meritorious,  but  are,  on  the  contrary,  expressly  forbidden. 
They  say  the  power  of  Arimanes  is  increased  by  punishing 
the  body  and  rendering  it  feeble  and  sluggish  ;  that  Ormuzd 
is  best  ])leased  when  the  body  is  kept  fresh  and  vigorous, 
as  a  means  of  rendering  the  soul  more  strong  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  evil.  They  believe  that  a  man  in  good  health 
and  Hpirits  can  listen  more  attentively  to  the  Sacred  Word, 


CIIALDEA   and   PERSIA,  279 

and  lias  more  courage  of  heart  to  perform  good  works. 
They  consider  Large  favnihes  a  blessing,  and  keep  all  birth- 
da^^s  as  holy  festivals.  They  say  beneficent  genii  gave 
fragrance  to  flowers,  and  flavour  to  fruit,  on  purpose  that 
man  might  enjoy  them.  They  take  cheerful  and  benevolent 
views  of  death.  To  the  good  it  is  only  a  passage  into 
Paradise;  to  the  wicked  it  is  the  beginning  of  penances 
that  will  finally  atone  for  their  sins,  and  from  which  the 
living  can  help  to  deliver  them  by  their  prayers.  When  a 
man  commits  crimes,  it  is  ordained  that  relatives  and  friends 
should  perform  pious  rites  and  make  donations  to  the  poor, 
in  expiation  of  his  faults,  because  they  believe  such  obser- 
vances will  diminish  his  period  of  punishment. 

They  have  a  tradition  that  a  holy  personage,  named 
Pashoutan,  is  waiting  in  a  region  called  Kanguedez,  for 
a  summons  from  the  Ized  Serosch,  who  in  the  last  days 
will  bring  him  to  Persia,  to  restore  the  ancient  dominion 
of  that  country  and  spread  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  over 
the  whole  earth. 

In  the  northern  districts  of  Kurdistan  there  is,  at  this 
present  time,  a  sect  called  Yezidis,  or  Devil-Worshippers, 
greatly  despised  by  the  Mahometans  and  Christians  around 
them.  They  are  kind  and  simple  people,  extremely  devout, 
according  to  the  faith  which  they  believe  was  delivered  to 
their  saints.  They  have  a  tradition  that  they  came  from 
the  banks  of  the  Eui)hrates,  and  their  worship  indicates  a 
Chaldean  or  Persian  origin.  They  believe  in  One  Supreme 
Being,  but  have  a  reverential  awe  of  talking  about  his  ex- 
istence or  attributes.  The}'-  believe  Satan  Avas  once  chief 
of  the  angelic  host.  He  is  now  suffering  punishment  for 
his  rebellion  against  the  Supreme,  but  will  eventually  be 
restored  to  his  high  estate  in  the  celestial  hierarchy,  lie 
has  under  his  control  seven  S[)irits,  who  exercise  great  in- 
fluence over  the  affairs  of  this  world.  They  sa}'  it  is 
necessary  to  conciliate  him,  because  he  now  has  means  of 
doing  much  evil  to  manlcind,  and  he  will  hereafter  have 
powei  to  reward  them.  ^\^hen  they  allude  to  him,  they  do 
it  witli  great  reverence;  calHng  him  Melek  el  Kout,  the 


280  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Mio'htv  Anoel.  They  will  not  mention  his  name,  or  even 
utter  any  word  which  resembles  it  in  sound.  It  iri'itates 
them  to  hear  it  spoken  by  others,  and  it  is  said  they  have 
put  to  death  some  who  wantonly  persisted  in  doing  it  to 
annoy  them.  The  bronze  image  of  a  bird,  consecrated  to 
him,  is  treated  with  great  veneration.  The  Slieik  carries 
it  in  all  his  journeys,  and  his  deputies  have  small  copies 
of  it  made  in  wax.  They  practise  circumcision,  and  baptize 
a  child  in  water,  if  possible,  seven  daj^s  after  birth.  They 
consider  Abraham  and  Mahomet  great  prophets,  and  be- 
lieve that  Christ  was  a  heavenly  Spirit,  who  took  on  him- 
self the  form  of  a  man,  for  benevolent  purposes.  They 
say  lie  did  not  die  on  the  cross,  but  ascended  living  to 
lieaven,  whence  he  will  come  a  second  time  on  this  earth. 
They  have  very  great  reverence  for  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
and  a  lesser  dearree  for  the  New  Testament  and  tlie  Koran. 
They  practise  frequent  ablutions,  and  have  great  abhor- 
rence of  pork.  They  have  a  volume  in  Arabic,  containing 
chants,  prayers,  and  directions  for  the  performance  of  re- 
ligious ceremonies.  They  consider  this  very  sacred,  and 
will  not  show  it  to  strangers.  Their  holy  day  is  "Wednes- 
day ;  they  do  not  abstain  from  work,  but  some  always 
fast.  They  have  four  orders  of  hereditary  priesthood, 
and,  what  is  very  remarkable  in  Asia,  these  offices  descend 
to  women  as  well  as  men,  and  both  are  treated  with  equal 
reverence.  The  higher  orders  of  priests  generally  wear 
white  linen  garments,  the  inferior  wear  black,  or  dark 
brown.  Every  district  has  a  religious  head,  called  a 
Sheik.  The  office  is  hereditary  in  his  family,  but  the 
descendant  best  qualified  by  character  is  chosen  to  succeed 
him.  An  order  of  priests  called  Pirs,  or  Saints,  are  much 
reverenced.  Their  intercessions  for  the  peo])lc  are  sup- 
posed to  have  great  influence,  and  it  is  believed  that  they 
are  invested  witli  power  to  cure  insanity  and  disease. 
They  arc  expected  to  lead  a  very  pure  and  holy  life. 

The  Yczidis  always  turn  toward  the  east  when  they  pray, 
and  kiss  the  first  objects  touched  by  the  rays  of  the  rising 
sun.     On  great  festivals  they  sacrifice  white  oxen  to  the 


CIIALDEA    AND   PERSIA.  281 

Sun,  and  distribute  the  flesh  among  the  poor.  They 
venerate  fire,  and  suffer  nothing  unek^an  to  be  tlirown  into 
it.  Sheik  Adi  is  their  great  suint.  They  have  many 
traditions  of  his  interviews  with  angels.  The  valley 
where  he  is  buried  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  AVorshijtpers 
wash  themselves  and  their  garments,  and  take  the  shocks 
from  their  feet,  before  they  step  on  the  hallowed  ground. 
A  yearly  sum  is  paid  to  priests,  who  guard  the  sacred 
valley  from  all  pollution,  keep  lamps  lighted,  and  perforin 
the  appointed  ceremonies.  The  badge  of  their  office  is  a 
girdle  of  red  and  yellow,  the  colours  of  fire.  On  the  door 
of  the  tomb  are  rudely  carved  a  lion,  a  serpent,  a  man,  a 
hatchet,  and  a  comb.  The  serpent  is  particularly  con- 
spicuous. Balls  of  clay  taken  from  this  tomb  are  sold  as 
relics,  and  believed  to  be  very  efficacious  against  diseases 
and  Evil  Spirits.  A  chapter  from  the  Koran  is  written  on 
the  interior  walls.  Only  Sheiks  and  high  priests  are  per- 
mitted to  be  buried  in  the  vicinity.  Near  by  is  a  reservoir 
of  water,  which  they  believe  the  saint  brought  miraculously 
from  the  holy  well  of  Zcm  Zem,  at  Mecca.  It  is  carefully 
guarded  from  all  impurities,  and  eagerly  drank  by  crowds 
of  pilgrims.  A  low  edifice,  with  a  small  white  spire,  is 
called  the  Sanctuary  of  the  Sun.  On  a  slab,  near  the  door, 
is  carved  an  invocation  to  the  Spirit  of  the  Sun,  and  it  is 
so  built  that  the  first  rays  of  that  luminary  fall  U]wn  it. 
The  interior  is  continually  lighted  by  lamps,  and  is  con- 
sidered a  very  holy  place.  There  are  no  buildings  in  all 
the  valley,  except  those  for  worship  and  the  dwellings  of 
resident  priests.  They  are  kept  very  pure  with  repeated 
coats  of  whitewash.  On  the  evening  of  festivals,  lamps  are 
placed  in  all  the  niches  of  the  walls,  and  in  apertures  of  the 
rocky  mountains  that  enclose  this  sacred  valley.  They  are 
generally  votive  ofierings  from  pilgrims,  who  have  prayed 
to  the  saint  in  time  of  danger  or  distress,  and  found  relief 
from  his  supposed  intercessions.  As  priests  walk  by  car- 
rying these  lamps,  pilgrims  crowd  round  them,  striving  to 
pass  their  right  hands  through  the  flame.  They  devoutly 
kiss  the  hand  thus  purified,  and  rub  the  right  eyebrow 
Vol.  [.— 24* 


282  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

with  it.  They  hold  out  little  children  to  have  their  right 
hands  purified  in  the  same  way.  Those  who  cannot  reach 
the  flame,  strive  to  touch  the  hands  of  others  who  are  more 
fortunate.  They  reverentlj'-  kiss  the  very  stones  blackened 
by  the  smoke  of  these  lamps. 

On  the  festival  of  Sheik  Adi,  his  tomb  is  visited  by 
long  processions  of  priests  in  white  linen  robes,  musicians 
with  pipes  and  tambourines,  and  pilgrims  from  all  their  dis- 
tricts. Peddlers  congregate  there  to  sell  their  wares.  Sheiks 
and  priests  walk  familiarly  among  the  people,  or  sit  talk- 
ing with  them  in  the  shadows  of  the  trees.  Seven  or  eight 
thousand  usually  meet  together  on  this  occasion,  and  it  is  a 
picturesque  sight  to  see  them  wandering  about  among  the 
trees  and  rocks  with  their  lighted  torches.  Layard  thus 
describes  some  of  the  religious  ceremonies  he  witnessed  at 
this  festival :  "  Thousands  of  lights  danced  in  the  distance, 
glimmered  among  the  trees,  and  were  reflected  in  the  foun- 
tains and  streams.  Suddenly  all  voices  were  hushed.  A 
solemn  strain  of  sweet  pathetic  music  came  from  the  tomb 
of  the  saint;  the  voices  of  men  and  women  in  harmony 
with  flutes.  At  measured  intervals,  the  song  was  broken 
by  the  loud  clash  of  cymbals  and  tambourines;  and  then 
those  without  the  precincts  of  the  tomb  joined  in  the  melody. 
The  same  slow  and  solemn  strain,  occasionally  varied,  lasted 
nearly  an  hour.  Gradually,  the  chant  gave  way  to  a 
lively  melody,  ever  increasing  in  quickness.  Voices  were 
raised  to  the  highest  pitch  ;  women  made  the  rocks  resound 
with  their  shrill  tones;  men  among  the  multitude  without 
joined  in  the  cry ;  tambourines  were  beaten  with  extraor- 
dinary cp.ergy  ;  musicians  strained  their  limbs  in  violent 
contortions,  till  they  fell  exhausted  on  the  ground.  I 
never  heard  a  more  frightful  3'ell  than  rose  in  that  valley. 
It  was  midnight.  There  were  no  immodest  gestures  or  un- 
seemly ceremonies.  AVhcn  musicians  and  singers  were  ex- 
hausted, the  sounds  died  away,  groups  scattered  alxiut  the 
valley,  and  resumed  their  previous  cheerfulness." 

The  Yezidis  are  remarkable  for  tenacious  attachment  to 
their  religion.     A  i)ci'S(;n  of  mature  age  among  them  never 


CHALDEA   AND   PERSIA.  283 

renounces  his  faith.  They  have  often  been  subjected  to 
tei-rible  tortures,  but  have  invariably  preferred  death  to  the 
adoption  of  any  other  form  of  worship.  Even  when  young 
children  are  carried  off  and  sold  to  Turkish  harems,  they 
often  cherish  through  life  the  religion  of  their  childhood, 
and  contrive  to  keep  up  a  secret  communication  with  their 
priests. 


.284:  PROGKESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 


GREECE    AND    ROME. 

Man  gifted  IS'ature  witli  divinit}', 

To  lift  and  link  her  to  the  breast  of  love ; 

All  things  betra^-ed  to  the  initiate  e^-e 
The  tracks  of  gods  above. 

Not  to  that  ciiltni-e  gay, 

Stern  self-denial,  or  siiarp  penance  wan. 

Well  might  each  heart  be  happy  in  that  day ; 
For  gods,  tlie  happy  ones,  were  kin  to  man. 

SciuLLEu's  Gods  of  Greece. 

Greece  was  the  oldest  European  nation.  Its  liistory 
extends  a  little  more  than  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
years  before  Christ ;  two  hundred  years  earlier  than  Moses ; 
but  they  Avere  a  rude  people  at  that  time,  dwelling  in  huts 
and  caves.  Being  settled  by  colonies  from  Egypt,  Phoe- 
nicia, Thrace,  and  other  countries,  their  religious  customs 
and  opinions  varied  considerably  in  different  states;  but 
the  general  features  were  similar.  They  worshipped  many 
deities,  all  intended  to  represent  the  divine  energy  acting 
in  various  departments  of  the  universe.  A  few  enlightened 
minds  among  them  taught  that  these  all  proceeded  from 
One  Central  Source  of  Being;  and  this  belief,  confused 
and  dim  at  first,  became  more  distinct  as  knowledge  in- 
creased, 

Athens  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Egyi)t,  and  the 
intercourse  between  that  countr}-  and  Greece  was  alwaj^s 
iVequent.  '^IMie  efl'ect  of  this  on  their  religion  and  philoso- 
phy is  very  obvious.  ])Ut  in  the  Grecian  atmosphere  of 
thought  and  feeling  all  things  were  tinged  with  more 
cheeri'ul  and  poetic  colours.  Egyptian  reverence  for  sta- 
bility and  power  was  here  changed  to  worship  of  frcedcn 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  285 

and  beauty.  Strong,  active,  and  viv'acions  tliemselves,  the 
Grecians  invested  their  deities  with  the  same  characteristics. 
They  did  not  conceive  of  them  as  dwelHiig  apart  in  passion- 
less majesty,  Hlce  Egyptian  gods,  with  a  solemn  veil  of 
obscurity  around  them.  They  were  in  the  midst  of  things, 
working,  fighting,  loving,  rivalling,  and  outwitting  each 
other,  just  like  human  beings,  from  whom  they  differed 
mainly  in  more  enlarged  powers.  No  anchorites  here 
preached  torture  of  the  body  for  the  good  of  the  soul. 
How  to  enjov'  the  pleasures  of  life  with  prudence,  and  in- 
vest it  with  the  greatest  degree  of  beauty,  was  their 
moralit}'.  In  the  procession  of  the  nations,  Greece  always 
comes  bounding  before  the  imagination,  like  a  o-raceful 
young  man  in  the  early  freshness  of  his  vigour;  and 
nothing  cun  wean  a  poetic  mind  from  the  powerful  attrac- 
tion of  his  immortal  beauty. 

Gay,  imaginative,  pliable,  and  free,  the  Grecians  received 
religious  ideas  from  every  source,  and  wove  them  all  to- 
gether in  a  mythological  web  of  fancy,  confused  and  wav- 
ering in  its  patterns,  but  full  of  golden  threads.  They 
seem  to  have  copied  external  rites  from  Egypt,  without 
troubling  themselves  to  comprehend  the  symbolical  mean- 
ing, which  priests  concealed  so  carefully.  '^I'hey  added 
ceremonies  and  legends  from  other  countries,  broken  into 
fragments,  and  mixed  together  in  strange  disorder. 

They  had  no  Sacred  Books,  in  the  usual  meaning  of  the 
term.  Minos,  their  first  lawgiver,  was  believed  to  have 
received  his  laws  directly  from  Jupiter  ;  and  popular 
veneration  invested  with  a  certain  degree  of  sacred  author- 
ity the  poems  of  Hesiod  and  llonier,  supposed  to  have 
been  written  about  nine  hundred  years  before  Christ. 
These  works  were  believed  to  be  divint-ly  inspired  by 
Apollo  and  the  Muses.  This  was  not  a  mere  poetical 
figure  of  speech  with  the  Grecians,  as  it  would  be  with  us; 
for  they  had  a  lively  and  undoubting  foith  that  Apollo 
and  the  Muses  were  genuine  deities,  who  took  cognizance 
of  the  affairs  of  men,  and  filled  the  souls  of  prophets  and 
poets  with  divine  inspiration.     It  is  said  by  some  that 


286  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Hesiod  was  a,  priest  in  the  temple  of  the  Muses,  on  Mount 
Helicon.  He  seems  to  have  been  desirous  to  inculcate 
religious  reverence,  and  a  love  of  agriculture.  He  con- 
demns licentiousness,  irreverence  to  parents,  and  riches 
procured  by  fraud  or  violence.  He  strongly  insists  on  the 
sacredness  of  an  oath,  and  the  laws  of  hospitality.  He 
teaches  to  love  those  who  love  us,  and  to  return  gifts  to 
the  generous.  He  recommends  withliolding  friendly  offices 
from  enemies  ;  but  declares  that  Jupiter  will  certainly 
punish  those  who  refuse  to  pardon  a  suppliant  offender. 
He  gives  a  rather  unintelligible  account  of  the  creation  of 
the  world  from  chaos.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  agents 
in  the  work  is  Love,  by  which  he  probably  meant  the 
Principle  of  Attraction,  drawing  the  elements  into  union, 
and  producing  a  series  of  offspring ;  thus  by  the  marriage 
of  Heaven  and  Earth,  Ocean  was  born.  The  deities,  whom 
he  describes  as  intermarrying,  fighting,  and  plotting  against 
each  other,  were  the  popular  Gods  of  the  country,  the 
Spirits  supposed  to  preside  over  planets  and  elements.  He 
tells  of  huge  giants  called  Titans,  born  of  Heaven  and 
Earth.  One  of  them,  named  Chronos  by  the  Greeks  and 
Saturn  by  the  Romans,  dethroned  his  father  Coelus,  or 
Heaven,  and  governed  the  universe.  He  is  represented  as 
devouring  his  own  children  ;  an  allegorical  way  of  saying 
that  '^'ime,  whose  Greek  name  is  Chronos,  destroys  what- 
ever he  produces.  One  of  his  sons,  named  Jupiter,  who 
escaped  by  artifice  of  his  mother,  expelled  his  father,  and 
reigned  in  his  stead.  Tlie  Titans  made  war  upon  him,  but 
he  succeeded  in  chaining  them  all  in  the  dungeons  of  Tar- 
tarus. These  legends  are  supposed  to  be  symbolical  of  the 
Btrugglc  of  the  elements  when  the  world  was  formed. 

Hesiod  describes  the  administration  of  Saturn  as  the 
Golden  Age  of  the  world.  Men  lived  like  gods,  without 
vices  or  passions,  vexation  or  toil.  In  hapjiy  companion- 
ship with  divine  beings,  they  passed  their  days  in  tran- 
quillity and  joy,  living  together  in  perfect  equality,  united 
by  mutual  confidence  and  love.  The  earth  was  more  beau- 
tiful than   noWj  and   spontaneously  yielded   an  abundant 


GREECE   AND   EOME.  287 

variety  of  fruits.  Uuman  beings  and  animals  spoke  the 
,<ame  language,  and  conversed  freely  together.  Men  were 
considered  mere  boys  at  a  hundred  years  old.  They  had 
none  of  the  infirmities  of  age  to  trouble  them,  and  when 
they  passed  to  regions  of  superior  life,  it  was  in  a  gentle 
slumber.  Then  followed  the  Silver  Age,  when  the  lives 
of  men  were  shortened  on  account  of  their  neglect  of  the 
gods,  and  injustice  toward  each  other.  This  was  succeeded 
by  a  Brazen  Age  of  turbulence  and  insecurity.  This  de- 
generated still  more  into  the  Iron  Age,  corresponding  to 
the  Call  Yug  of  the  Hindoos.  Hesiod  laments  that  his 
own  birth  happened  in  this  unfortunate  period  of  time, 
when  the  life  of  man  is  but  a  span,  when  fraud,  violence, 
calumny,  and  all  manner  of  crimes  and  diseases,  everywhere 
abound. 

Homer  resembles  Kcsiod  in  his  ideas  of  vice  and  virtue. 
Superior  power,  not  moral  excellence,  is  the  essential  ele- 
ment in  his  conception  of  divine  beings.  He  represents 
them  as  very  human  in  their  passions,  motives,  and  actions. 
They  enjoy  oblations  of  bread,  wine,  fruit,  and  the  sacrifice 
of  animals,  as  one  man  enjoys  the  hospitality  of  another. 
They  are  wrathful  and  relentless  when  offended,  and  can 
be  appeased  only  by  prayers  and  gifts.  They  fall  in  love 
with  mortal  women,  by  whom  a  race  of  demi-gods  are  pro- 
duced. They  resort  to  all  manner  of  trickery  and  violence 
to  accomplish  their  purposes.  Thus  Pallas  Athena  is  rep- 
resented as  obtaining  permission  from  Zeus  to  tempt  Pan- 
darus  to  violate  a  treaty  solemnly  sworn  to.  Such  treachery 
is  described  as  meritorious,  by  the  Greek  poets,  because  it 
was  exercised  in  favour  of  their  own  nation. 

A  direct  supernatural  agency  guides  and  contj'ols  all 
things,  great  and  small.'  Birth,  death,  health,  beauty, 
riches,  all  that  a  man  is,  and  all  that  he  has,  are  attributed 
to  the  gods.  Everv  phenomenon  of  nature,  every  great 
thought,  and  noble  impulse,  is  ascribed  to  divine  agency. 
Any  person  highly  gifted  is  supposed  to  be  peculiarly 
dear  to  the  deity  who  presides  over  that  gift.  Poets  and 
prophets  receive  their  inspiration  from  Phoebus,  and  Helen 


288  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

owes  her  extraordinary  beauty  to  the  partiality  of  Aphro- 
dite. Even  a  hearty  laugh  is  ascribed  to  the  genial  influ- 
ence of  the  gods.  A  constant  living  intercourse  is  sup- 
posed to  exist  between  them  and  mortals.  They  descend 
visibly  to  this  earth  to  converse  with  mankind.  They 
often  visit  cities  in  the  disguise  of  travellers,  to  inspect  the 
conduct  of  men. 

Wrong  and  foolish  actions  are  likewise  attributed  to 
supernatural  influence.  Helen  ascribes  her  elopement  from 
her  husband  to  an  infatuation  implanted  in  her  heart  bv 
Aphrodite.  A  man,  who  goes  out  without  his  cloak  in  a 
cold  night,  is  represented  as  saying:  "A  god  deceived  me 
that  I  did  this  thing." 

The  rewards  of  vice  and  virtue  in  another  life,  and  all 
that  is  said  of  the  condition  of  departed  souls,  is  exceed- 
ingly dim  and  shadowy. 

Succeeding  poets  enlarged  and  embellished  the  history 
of  the  gods,  sometimes  from  their  own  imagination,  some- 
times from  the  traditions  of  various  other  nations  ;  and  the 
populace  received  it  all  with  the  ready  credulity  of  bright, 
elastic,  youthful  natures.  Many  of  the  subordinate  deities 
are  obviously  mere  personifications  of  the  elements  and 
the  forces  of  nature.  Thus  the  violence  of  the  ocean  is 
represented  as  Poseidon  swallowing  thousands  of  victims. 
It  is  to  be  presumed  that  most  of  these  legends  were  in- 
tended to  convey,  in  allegorical  form,  some  truth,  phj'sical 
or  metaphysical,  astronomical  or  moral ;  but  at  this  distance 
of  time,  and  with  altogether  foreign  habits  of  thought,  we 
can  with  difficulty  perceive  here  and  there  a  gleam  of 
meaning;  especially  in  the  numerous  amours  of  the  gods, 
which,  if  taken  literally,  would  make  them  appear  more 
sensual  than  mortals. 

A  religion  composed  of  such  various  and  flexible  frag- 
ments, of  course  left  great  freedom  of  construction  to  the 
worshippers.  But  the  conservative  i)rinciple  which  pre- 
vents all  erratic  things  from  flying  entirely  out  of  their 
f)rbits,  came  in,  to  clieck  the  excess  of  Grecian  freedom. 
Gods  from  other  countries  were  continually  adopted  into 


GREECE    AXD   KOME.  289 

their  Pantlicon,  but  this  was  never  done  until  tlic  formal 
sanction  of  the  state  had  been  obtained.  When  rites  and 
festivals  were  once  established,  and  the  populace  had  in- 
vested them  with  the  sacrcdncss  which  belongs  to  time- 
hallowed  usages,  it  was  extremely  difficult  for  government 
to  abolish  them.  Thus  the  custom  of  running  naked 
through  tVe  streets  at  the  festival  in  honour  of  Pan,  called 
Lupercal  a,  was  continued  long  after  a  large  portion  of  the 
community  had  come  to  regard  it  as  indecent. 

All  their  deities  bear  traces  of  a  foreign  origin,  and  the 
histories  told  of  them  are  obviously  the  mixed  legends  of 
various  nations.  Tliat  their  prominent  deities  were  Spirits 
of  the  Planets,  is  indicated  by  their  names :  Apollo  the  Sun, 
Diana  the  Moon,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Mars,  Mercury,  and 
Venus.  Like  Hindoos  and  Egyptians,  they  consecrated 
the  days  successively  to  these  Planetary  S])irits.  The 
seventh  day  was  sacred  to  Saturn,  from  time  immemorial. 
Ilomer  and  Ilesiod  call  it  the  holy  day. 

Zeus,  whom  Romans  called  Jupiter,  was  differently 
represented  at  dilferent  epochs  of  their  history.  As  the 
Son  of  Heaven,  with  Metis,  the  wisest  of  deities,  for  his 
wife,  he  resembles  Brahma  of  Hindostan,  and  Amun  of 
Egypt.  Hesiod  and  Homer  describe  him  as  the  Supreme 
Creator  of  heaven,  earth,  and  sea,  the  Father  of  Gods  and 
men;  strengthening  the  Weak,  sustaining  the  strong,  seeino^ 
past,  present,  and  future,  at  a  glance,  and  subject  to  noth- 
ing except  the  unalterable  decrees  of  the  Fates.  He  alone 
never  appears  in  person  on  the  stage  of  human  aftuirs. 
He  is  so  highl^^  exalted  above  all  beings,  that  he  needs  the 
agency  of  mediators  to  converse  with  mortals.  Greeks,  as 
well  as  Hindoos  and  Egyptians,  believed  in  an  element 
above  the  air,  called  ether.  Some  descriptions  of  Jupiter 
represent  him  as  Son  of  Ether,  armed  with  a  thunderbolt, 
surrounded  by  moon  and  stars.  This  is  a  reappearance  of 
Indi-a,  the  Hindoo  god  of  the  Firmament;  and  in  this 
capacity  he  is  married  to  his  sister  Juno,  who  represented 
the  Air,  and  had  Iris,  the  Rainbow,  for  her  attendant  and 
messenger.  According  to  another  account,  Jupiter  was  the 
Vol.  I.— 25  n 


290  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Son  of  Saturn,  or  Time,  and  Rhea,  the  Earth.  Cretans 
were  accustomed  to  show  the  grotto  on  Mount  Ida  where 
he  was  said  to  be  born,  and  the  sepulchre  where  he  was 
buried.  But  these  traditions  excited  the  ridicule  and  in- 
dignation of  other  Greeks.  "All  this  is  fiction,"  exclaims 
Callimachus;   "for  thou,  0  Father,  livest  forever." 

Pallas  Athena,  whom  Romans  called  Minerva,  resem- 
bles the  Hindo  Sereswati,  and  the  Egyptian  Neith.  Siie 
was  goddess  of  wisdom,  presiding  over  philosophy,  poetry, 
arts,  sciences,  and  military  tactics.  She  is  represented  as 
for  ever  by  the  side  of  Jupiter,  from  whose  brain  she  was 
born. 

Dionysus,  or  Bacchus,  was  god  of  wine  and  vintage. 
He  resembles  Osiris  in  one  department  of  his  beneficence; 
namely,  that  of  introducing  the  cultivation  of  vines.  There 
is  great  similarity  between  Rama,  Osiris,  and  Bacchus,  in 
several  of  their  adventures,  and  the  ceremonials  of  their 
worship.  They  are  all  represented  as  having  taught  men 
agricultural  arts,  and  performed  great  exploits  in  India. 

Demeter,  or  Ceres,  is  Isis  limited  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
earth  and  the  protection  of  harvests. 

Hermes,  or  Mercury,  was  god  of  merchants,  orators,  and 
thieves.  Like  Thoth,  he  was  messenger  between  gods  and 
men,  and  conducted  departed  souls  to  the  Judges  of  the 
Dead. 

Pan,  god  of  generation,  was  represented,  like  the  Egyp- 
tian Kham,  with  the  body  and  legs  of  a  goat.  His  name 
signifies  All,  and  was  bestowed  upon  him  because  the 
generative  principle  pervades  all  things  in  the  universe. 

Rhea  and  Cybele  were  two  very  ancient  goddesses,  whose 
worship  was  introduced  fi'om  different  countries,  and  in 
process  of  time  mixed  together.  '^^Phey  both  re])resonted 
ti)e  Earth,  or  Nature  in  her  |)roductive  ])ower.  One  of 
their  names  was  Maia,  the  Hindoo  name  for  the  gotldessof 
Nature. 

A))hrodito,  or  Venus,  goddess  of  beauty  and  j^leasure, 
like  the  Hindoo  Parvati,  was  born  of  the  foam  of  the  sea, 
and  was  the  mother  of  Love. 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  291 

Eros,  or  Ca]jid,  god  of  love,  is  represented,  like  the 
Camu  of  the  Hindoos,  as  a  mischievous  boy,  armed  with 
bow  and  arrows. 

The  central  figure  in  Grecian  mythology  was  Phoebus, 
or  Apollo.  He  was  god  of  light,  of  poetry,  eloquence, 
and  medicine,  but  was  especially  honoured  as  presiding 
over  prophecy.  As  god  of  medicine,  he  was  originally 
worshi})ped  under  the  form  of  a  Serpent,  and  men  invoked 
him  as  the  Helper.  In  later  times,  his  worship  was  con- 
founded with  that  of  Helios,  the  visible  sun  ;  but,  like  the 
Hindoo  Crishna,  he  was  the  representative  of  spiritual 
light  and  warmth.  Poets  sometimes  called  him  "king  of 
intellectual  tire."  Perhaps,  like  the  Persian  Mithras,  he 
w^as  the  attendant  Ferver,  or  guardian  angel  of  the  visible 
luminary.  He  excelled  in  music,  and  is  often  represented 
playing  on  a  flute,  with  the  nine  ]M uses  dancing  round  him, 
like  the  nine  GopiiB  of  Hindostan.  Like  Crislma,  he  is 
said  to  have  killed  a  huge  venomous  serpent  in  his  child- 
hood, and  to  have  performed  the  duties  of  a  shepherd  many 
years  in  the  family  of  Admetus.  Egyptians  consecrated 
the  island  of  Phihe,  where  Osiris  and  his  twin  sister  Isis 
were  said  to  have  been  born.  Greeks  had  a  tradition  that 
the  island  of  Delos  had  risen  suddenl}^  from  the  sea  to  pro- 
vide a  birth-place  for  Apollo  and  his  twin  sister,  Phoebe, 
or  Diana.  No  dog  was  allowed  to  approach  the  sacred 
island,  no  mortal  was  permitted  to  be  born  or  die  there,  and 
no  diseased  person  to  remain.  On  the  sea-shore  stood  a 
very  beautiful  temple  of  Apollo,  the  altar  of  which  was 
never  stained  with  blood. 

In  Greek  mythology  there  was  no  one  deity  to  represent 
the  power  of  evil.  Zeus  was  su})posed  to  distribute  good 
gifts  from  an  urn  at  his  right  hand,  and  evil  from  an  urn 
at  his  left.  Among  the  subordinate  deities  several  were 
of  malign  influence.  Hades,  whom  Romans  called  Pluto, 
reigned  in  dismal  subterranean  regions,  seated  on  a  throne 
of  sulphur,  presiding  over  death  and  funerals.  His  coun- 
tenance was  gloomy  and  stern.  Men  erected  no  temples 
to  him.     The  only  sacrifices  offered  were  black  animals, 


292  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

and  their  blood  was  not  sprinkled  on  altars,  but  poured 
into  holes  in  the  ground.  All  unlucky  things  were  sacred 
to  him,  especially  the  number  two.  Around  his  throne 
were  seated  the  three  Eumenides,  or  Furies,  employed  to 
execute  the  vengeance  of  the  gods.  On  earth  they  inflicted 
war,  pestilence,  famine,  and  reinorse.  In  the  regions  of 
Pluto,  they  scourged  sinners  with  scorpions  and  tormented 
them  continually.  They  were  represented  with  bloody 
garments,  frightful  countenances,  and  snakes  wreathed  in 
their  hair.  Mortals  feared  to  utter  their  names,  or  look 
lip  at  their  temples  as  they  passed.  If  any  person  guiltj 
of  crime  dared  to  approach  their  altars,  it  was  supposed  he 
would  be  instantly  deprived  of  reason.  The  Parcoe,  or 
Fates,  were  depicted  as  three  old  women,  who  spun  the 
thread  of  life  and  cut  it  in  twain.  Black  sheep  were  an- 
nually sacrificed  to  them,  but  no  prayers  were  ever  offered, 
because  it  was  believed  that  not  even  Jupiter  himself  could 
change  their  inexorable  decrees.  It  was  supposed  that  no 
person  could  die,  unless  Proserpine,  wife  of  Pluto,  or  one 
of  the  Fates,  cut  some  hairs  from  his  head.  It  was  cus- 
tomary to  strew  the  hair  of  the  deceased  on  the  threshold 
of  the  door,  as  an  offering  to  them. 

Every  district  and  town  had  some  tutelary  deity  to  pre- 
side over  it,  who  was  supposed  to  be  peculiarly  connected 
with  its  welfare.  Athenians  considered  themselves  under 
the  especial  protection  of  Minerva,  and  Eleans  placed 
themselves  under  the  guardianship  of  Olymjiian  Jupiter. 
It  was  deemed  very  hazardous  to  the  prosperity,  and  even 
to  the  safety,  of  a  state  or  district,  to  neglect  any  of  the 
accustomed  worship  to  their  tutelary  deity  ;  therefore  they 
never  abandoned  any  of  the  ancient  gods,  though  they  in- 
troduced many  new  ones.  They  believed  that  the  pi'iests 
were  possessed  of  knowledge,  originally  revealed  from 
above,  which  enabled  them  to  j)erform  tlie  ceremonies  and 
repeat  the  words  necessary  to  bring  down  Celestial  Spirits 
into  statues,  and  even  into  pillars  and  consecrated  stones; 
and  tliat  prayers  addressed  to  these  visible  objects  were 
heard    by    the    deities    to    whom    they    were   dedicated. 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  293 

l^hose  who  gained  money  by  these  images  and  ceremonies 
naturally  encouraged  the  multiplication  of  them.  To  such 
an  extent  was  this  carried,  tliat  in  Rome,  fever,  coughing, 
and  sneezing,  had  eacli  a  separate  deity. 

They  believed  that  departed  human  souls  lingered 
around  their  former  habitations  and.  families,  to  protect 
them.  They  invoked  them  in  time  of  domestic  trouble, 
and  offered  sacrifices  to  appease  them,  when  they  thouglit 
they  had  been  wronged,  or  were  angry.  They  erected  re- 
markable tombs,  and  at  stated  seasons  repaired  thither  to 
offer  prayers  and  oblations  to  the  spirits  of  departed 
ancestors,  whom  they  called  Manes.  The  offerings  gen- 
erally consisted  of  flowers,  fruit,  wine,  and  incense;  but 
sometimes  animals  were  sacrificed,  and  even  human  beings. 
Religious  rites,  observed  with  regard  to  ancestors,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  introduced  the  worship  of  their  spirits,  under 
the  name  of  Lares  and  Penates,  household  gods,  protectors 
of  home  and  hearthstone.  Their  images,  made  of  silver, 
ivory,  or  wax,  were  woi'u  about  the  neck,  or  kept  in  some 
safe,  secluded  corner  of  every  house,  and  received  the 
same  oblations  usually  offered  to  the  Manes.  In  process 
of  time,  altars  and  statues  were  erected  to  ancestors,  as 
well  as  magnificent  tombs,  and  every  individual  was  at 
liberty  to  confer  such  honours  on  his  progenitors.  If  a  man 
had  gained  great  victories,  introduced  useful  inventions,  or 
been  distinguished  for  wisdom,  the  people  naturally  carried 
offerings  to  his  altar,  in  token  of  gratitude.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  Hero  Worship,  which  prevailed  very  exten- 
sively in  Greece  and  Rome.  The  old  Hindoo  idea  con- 
cerning the  ascending  destiny  of  holy  men,  was  transferred 
to  brave  men  and  national  benefactors.  Their  souls,  when 
released  from  the  body,  were  supposed  to  become  demi- 
gods, and  to  perform  the  office  of  mediators  between  mortals 
and  the  great  d^eities.  It  was  a  common  belief  that  they 
became  stars.  A  comet  that  appeared  soon  after  the  death 
of  Julius  CjBsar  was  supposed  to  indicate  his  reception 
among  the  gods.  The  emperor  Adrian  named  a  new  star 
for  the  beautiful  Antiuous,  his  deceased  favourite,  whose 
Vol.  I.— 25* 


294  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

soul  lie  supposed  had  in  that  form  taken  its  station  in  the 
heavens.  An  immortal  father  or  mother  was  generally 
assigned  to  the  men  who  became  demigods.  ^"Esculajjius, 
celebrated  for  his  skill  in  medicine,  was  said  to  be  the  son 
of  Apollo,  from  whom  he  derived  the  divine  gift.  The 
goddess  Thetis  gave  birth  to  Achilles,  renowned  for  mili- 
tary exploits.  Hercules,  who  relieved  the  earth  from  many 
monsters  and  tyrants,  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  by  a  mortal 
mother.  When  his  body  was  placed  on  the  funeral  pile,  a 
cloud  descended,  on  which  he  was  carried  up  in  a  chariot 
to  Olympus,  amid  peals  of  thunder.  There  he  became  a 
god,  and  married  Hebe,  goddess  of  immortal  youth.  His 
friends,  being  unable  to  find  his  bones  or  ashes,  manifested 
gratitude  to  his  memory  by  erecting  an  altar  on  the  spot 
where  the  burning  pile  had  stood. 

In  addition  to  gods  and  demigods,  every  department  of 
the  universe  was  filled  with  Spirits,  whom  Greeks  called 
Demons,  whether  their  offices  were  good  or  evil.  The  good 
were  called  Agatho-demons,  and  the  bad  Caco-demons. 
Hesiod  says : 

"Thrice  ten  thousand  holy  demons  rove 
This  bre.athing  work! ;  the  immortals  sent  from  Jove. 
Guardians  of  men,  tlieir  glance  alike  surveys 
Tlie  iiiM-it;ht  judgments  and  tlie  unrighteous  Avaj-s. 
Hovering  tiiey  glide  to  earth's  extremest  bound, 
A  cloud  aerial  veils  their  forms  around." 

Nine  nym})lis,  called  Muses,  the  favourite  companions  of 
Apollo,  presided  over  music,  dancing,  i)oetry,  and  all  the 
liberal  arts.  The  god  of  Love  delighted  to  spend  his 
nights  with  them  in  dance  and  song.  They  are  rejire- 
sented  as  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  goddess  of 
Memory,  because  memory  and  creative  intellect  combine 
to  produce  the  arts.     Hesiod  calls  tlicni: 

"Tlie  tlirii'f  three  snored  maids,  whose  ihIikIs  are  knit 
In  harmony,  whose  only  thought  is  song. 
They  King  tiie  laws  of  universal  heaven, 
An<l  the  ]>iirc  manners  of  immortal  gods. 
An(jn  llicy  bend  their  footsteps  toward  the  mounts 


GREECE   AND   ROME,  295 

Rejoicing  in  their  beauteous  voice,  and  song 
Unperisliing.     Far  round,  tl>c  dusk^-  earth 
Rings  witii  their  Ji\'inning  voices  ;  and  beneatii 
Tlieir  many  rustling  feet  a  pleasant  sound 
Ariseth,  as  tiiey  take  their  onward  way 
To  their  own  father's  presence." 

In  the  same  temple  with  the  Muses  were  worshipped  the 
Graces,  likewise  called  Charities;  three  beautiful  nymphs, 
presiding  over  gracious  manners  and  all  kindly  offices. 
Tliis  united  worship  was  an  instructive  custom,  since  cul- 
tivation of  mind  should  always  lead  to  moral  graces. 

There  were  countless  genii  to  take  care  of  hills,  and 
streams,  and  flowers.  Oreads  frequented  mo-untains,  wherci 
they  sat  "listening  to  the  talking  streams  below,"  sounding 
"sweet  echoes  to  the  huntsman's  horn."  Napeads  pro 
tected  valleys  and  shaded  nooks.  Dryads  loved  the  groves, 
where  the  imaginative  eye  saw  them  dance  in  the  bright 
play  of  sun  and  shadow.  Ephydriads  reclined  near  springs 
and  fountains,  lulled  by  the  rippling  waters.  N"aiads  swam 
playfuUj^  in  the  rivers,  and  Nereids  careered  on  the  ocean 
billows. 

Olympus,  which  early  Greeks  considered  the  loftiest 
mountain  in  the  world,  was  believed  to  be  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  gods.  Over  its  top  there  was  supposed  to  be 
an  opening  into  the  metallic  dome  of  heaven.  In  after 
times,  when  their  ideas  of  the  universe  enlarged,  they  said 
divine  beings  dwelt  in  the  exterior  sphere  of  the  heavens, 
revolving  round  the  space  which  included  the  planets;  and 
tills  residence  above  the  firmament  they  called  Olympus 
also. 

The  Hindoo  idea  of  a  subtile  invisible  body  within  the 
material  body,  reappeared  in  the  descriptions  of  Greek 
poets.  They  represented  the  constitution  of  man  as  con- 
sisting of  three  principles  :  the  soul,  the  invisible  body, 
and  the  material  body.  The  invisible  body  thev  called  the 
ghost  or  shade,  and  considered  it  as  the  material  portion 
of  the  soul.  At  death,  the  soul  clothed  in  this  subtile  body 
went  to  enjoy  paradise  for  a  season,  or  suffer  in  hell  till  its 


296  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

sins  were  expiated.  Then  if  the  Judges  of  tlie  Dead  had 
decreed  it  to  exist  again  on  earth,  it  returned  and  took  a 
material  body,  more  or  less  honourable,  according  to  its 
sentence.  Bat  when  the  souls  of  heroes  joined  the  gods, 
to  return  no  more  to  earthly  habitations,  they  parted  with 
this  subtile  body,  and  it  wandered  in  Elysium.  Ulysses  de- 
clares that  he  saw  there  the  divine  Hercules  ;  "  or  rather 
his  shade,  for  he  himself  was  with  the  immortal  gods,  as- 
sisting at  their  festivals."  The  paradise,  which  they  called 
Elysian  Fields,  some  supposed  to  be  part  of  the  lower 
world,  some  placed  them  in  a  middle  zone  of  the  air, 
some  in  the  moon,  and  others  in  far-off  isles  of  the 
ocean.  There  shone  more  glorious  sun  and  stars  than  illu- 
minate this  world.  The  day  was  alvva3's  serene,  the  air 
forever  pure,  and  a  soft  celestial  light  clothed  all  things  in 
transfigured  beauty.  Majestic  groves,  verdant  meadows, 
and  blooming  gardens,  varied  the  landscape.  The  river 
Eridanus  flowed  through  winding  banks  fringed  with 
laurel.  On  its  borders  lived  heroes  who  had  died  for  their 
country,  priests  who  had  led  a  pure  life,  artists  who  had 
embodied  genuine  beauty  in  their  works,  and  poets  who 
had  never  degraded  their  muse  with  subjects  unworthy  of 
Apollo.  There  each  one  renewed  the  pleasures  in  which 
he  formerly  delighted.  Orpheus,  in  long  white  robes, 
made  enrapturing  music  on  his  lyre,  while  others  danced 
and  sung.  The  husband  rejoined  his  beloved  wife;  old 
friendships  were  renewed;  the  poet  repeated  his  verses,  and 
the  charioteer  managed  his  horses.  Some  poets,  rather 
sensually  inclined,  describe  luxurious  feasts,  and  say  noth- 
ing can  be  more  mean  than  the  entertainments  in  Tartarus. 
In  a  retired  valley,  through  a  dark  grove,  drowsil}'  glided 
the  sluggish  stream  of  Lethe.  When  the  time  arrived  for 
souls  to  return  again  to  earth,  they  were  presented  with  a 
cup  of  its  waters,  which  made  them  forget  all  they  had  seen 
and  heard. 

'JMie  subterranean  I'ealin  whci-o  Pluto  ruled,  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  Hades,  and  1)y  the  Romans  Tartarus.  It 
was  a  deep,  dark,  awful  region,  encircled  by  a  river  of  fire, 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  297 

unci  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall.  Here  in  the  deepest  pits 
were  chained  the  proud  S{)irits  called  Titans,  who  rebelled 
against  Jupiter.  Here  the  condemned  were  scourged  with 
snakes  by  the  Furies;  or  were  seated  under  a  huge  stone 
for  ever  rendy  to  foil,  wishing  to  move,  but  unable  ;  or 
hungry  wolves  gnawed  the  liver,  which  for  ever  grew 
again  ;  or  they  were  consumed  with  thirst,  standing  in 
water  that  constantly  eluded  their  touch.  Some  souls 
wandered  in  vast  forests  between  Tartarus  and  Elysium, 
not  good  enough  for  one,  or  bad  enough  for  the  other. 
Some  were  purified  from  their  sins  by  exposure  to  search- 
ing winds,  others  by  being  submerged  in  deep  watei's, 
others  by  passing  through  intense  fires.  After  a  long 
period  of  probation  and  suffering,  many  of  them  gained 
the  Elj^sian  Fields,  When  they  had  enjoyed  a  period  pro- 
portioned to  their  merits,  they  were  sent  back  to  earth  to 
take  mortal  bodies  again.  A  few  of  the  purest  and  noblest 
ascended  to  the  gods. 

The  dead  were  represented  as  being  ferried  across  the 
dark  river  Acheron  to  the  regions  of  Pluto,  by  the  boat- 
man Charon,  for  whom  a  small  coin  was  placed  under  the 
tongue  of  the  deceased.  He  refused  to  carry  over  those 
who  had  not  received  burial  in  this  world  ;  they  were  ob- 
liged to  wander  on  the  banks  for  a  whole  century.  In  al- 
lusion to  this,  Yirgil  says  : 

"There  stood  tlie  gliosts,  and  stretched  their  Iiands  and  cried, 
Imploring  passage  to  the  other  side." 

The  shade  of  Patroclus  thus  spoke  to  Achilles  in  a  dream: 

"Thou  sleep'st,  Achilles;  and  Patroclus,  erst 
Thy  best  beloved,  in  deatii  forgotten  lies. 
Haste,  give  me  burial !     I  would  pass  the  gates 
Of  Hades;  for  the  shadows  of  the  dead 
Now  drive  me  from  their  fellowship  afar." 

These  ideas  originated  in  Egyptian  customs;  a  fact  which 
may  be  traced  even  in  the  names.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  was  a  beautiful  plain,  surrounded  by  groves,  and  in- 


298  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

tersected  witli  canals.  It  lay  beyond  Lake  Acliernsia,  and 
being  a  celebrated  place  of  interment,  it  was  called  Elisiicns, 
meaning  Kest.  On  the  borders  of  the  lake  was  a  tribunal 
to  inquire  into  the  character  of  the  deceased.  If  his  life 
had  been  wicked,  they  refused  to  convey  his  body  to  the 
cemetery,  and  it  was  thrown  into  a  ditch  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  called  Tartar.  If  the  decision  of  the  judges  was 
favourable,  eulogiums  were  publicly  passed  on  his  memorj'', 
and  after  the  priests  had  received  a  small  fee,  his  remains 
were  conveyed  across  the  lake  into  Elisi'ajns. 

The  Greeks  had  an  ancient  tradition  concerning  a  Tree 
which  grew  in  gardens  of  Paradise,  and  bore  the  golden 
Apples  of  Immortality,  It  was  guarded  by  three  nymphs, 
and  a  great  Serpent.  It  was  one  of  the  labours  of  Hercules 
to  gather  some  of  these  Apples  of  life.  Ancient  medallions 
represent  the  Tree  with  a  Serpent  twined  round  it.  Her- 
cules has  gathered  an  Apple,  and  near  him  stand  the  three 
nymphs,  called  Hesperides. 

There  were  several  hereditary  classes  in  Greece,  but 
there  was  no  law  of  caste  to  exclude  men  from  any  em- 
ployment they  chose,  or  from  the  investigation  of  any  sub- 
ject. In  times  as  ancient  as  Homer,  any  man  venerable 
f(jr  aw'c  or  wisdom  offered  pravers  and  sacrifices  to  the 
gods,  and  performed  religious  ceremonies  for  the  people. 
As  the  country  grew  older,  the  priesthood  became  more 
established  and  conspicuous;  but  an  element  of  freedom 
was  always  preserved,  which  rendered  their  influence  veiy 
dili'erent  from  that  of  the  exclusive  caste  of  priests  in  Ilin- 
(loslan  and  Egypt.  This  circumstance  doubtless  contri- 
buted much  toward  that  intellectual  energy  and  freedom 
of  inquiry  wdiich  so  eminently  characterized  the  ancient 
Greeks.  In  some  places,  the  priesthood  was  hereditary  in 
certain  families.  In  others,  the  prince  conferred  the  olhce 
on  whomsoever  he  deemed  worthy.  Sometimes  priests 
were  elected  by  lot,  sometimes  by  votes  of  the  people. 
They  were  required  to  be  of  good  moral  character,  in 
fiound  health,  and  not  deformed  in  any  way  ;  it  being 
deemed  irreverent  to  consecrate  to  the  gods  any  thing  im- 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  299 

pure  or  defective.  They  were  usually  clioscn  from  the 
upper  classes,  and  on  all  public  occasions  they  took  their 
places  with  kings  and  the  highest  civil  oflicers.  In  most 
of  the  cities  the  care  of  worship  was  intrusted  to  chief 
magistrates,  who  were  often  themselves  consecrated  to  the 
priesthood.  In  some  places  the  king  was  high  priest,  and 
all  important  sacrifices  for  the  good  of  the  commonwealth 
were  performed  by  him  only.  On  private  or  ordinary  oc- 
casions, the  father  of  the  family,  or  the  oldest  and  most 
honourable  man  present,  might  perform  religious  rites. 
But  when  any  great  calamity  was  to  be  averted,  or  extra- 
ordinary blessing  to  be  obtained,  they  sought  the  services 
of  the  priesthood ;  believing  that  the  gods  had  especially 
commissioned  them,  and  were  more  ready  to  hear  their 
prayers  than  those  of  other  men.  On  such  occasions,  they 
often  ascended  mountains  to  ask  counsel  of  the  gods ;  such 
places  being  invested  with  peculiar  sanctity,  and  deemed 
nearer  to  the  deities  than  other  portions  of  the  earth.  They 
often  performed  ablutions  in  running  streams,  or  were 
sprinkled  with  consecrated  water,  as  a  necessary  prepara- 
tion for  religious  ceremonies.  All  those  intrusted  with  re- 
ligious affairs  were  summoned  at  stated  periods  to  appear 
before  certain  magistrates  and  give  an  account  how  they 
had  discharged  their  duties.  In  small  plafces,  one-  priest 
fulfilled  all  the  sacred  offices,  but  in  large  cities  they  had 
various  grades  of  assistants.  Each  god  had  a  chief  priest 
and  subordinate  priests;  and  in  every  state  was  a  Supreme 
Pontiff",  whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  the  others,  and 
preside  at  the  highest  and  most  sacred  rites.  Some,  who 
were  devoted  to  the  most  elevated  functions  of  worship, 
lived  retired  from  worldly  affairs,  and  observed  the  strictest 
temperance  and  chastity.  They  drank  juice  of  hemlock 
and  other  herbs,  to  keep  the  blood  cool  and  the  passions  in 
subjection.  Some  even  deprived  themselves  of  manhood, 
from  the  idea  that  they  could  serve  the  gods  with  more 
purity.  A  class  of  them  were  called  Prophets,  and  ex- 
pounded oracles.  In  some  places,  these  never  tasted  ani- 
mal food,  or  any  thing  boiled.     Some  orders  were  allowed 


800  PEOGRESS   OF   KELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

to  marry,  but  second  unions  were  deemed  disreputablci 
Indeed,  in  the  early  days  of  strictness,  to  have  been  twice 
married  excluded  a  man  from  the  priesthood.  A  tenth 
part  of  the  harvests,  the  mines,  and  the  spoils  taken  in  war, 
were  appropriated  to  the  service  of  the  gods.  The  priests 
had  a  prescribed  share,  and  many  of  them  were  wealthy. 

From  Egypt  was  introduced  an  order  of  priests  called 
Asclepiades,  descendants  of  ^Esculapius,  god  of  medicine. 
The  results  of  medical  experience  acquired  in  the  temples, 
they  divulged  only  to  the  initiated,  under  solemn  promise 
ofsecresy.  A  healing  and  prophetic  serpent  was  kept  in 
their  temples,  and  the  staff  of  ^sculapius  was  represented 
wreathed  with  a  serpent.  These  medical  priests  applied 
magnetic  remedies  by  the  motion  of  their  hands,  sought  to 
induce  soothing. dreams,  and  operated  on  the  huagination 
of  patients  by  charms  and  conjurations.  They  carefully 
observed  the  course  of  diseases,  and  noted  down  the  results 
of  their  practice.  The  populace  considered  them  both 
prophets  and  physicians.  Aristides  eulogized  their  skill 
at  Smyrna,  and  the  first  practical  physician  in  Rome,  twenty 
years  before  Christ,  was  of  their  order.  In  later  times 
foreigners  were  freely  admitted  to  their  schools.  They 
were  the  founders  of  modern  scientific  medicine. 

Women  were  admitted  to  the  Grecian  priesthood,  shared 
its  highest  dignities,  and  in  such  capacities  were  regarded 
with  great  veneration.  Several  of  them  are  mentioned  ns 
wives  and  mothers,  and  they  seem  generally  to  have  been 
dignified  and  exemplary  matrons.  They  were  of  various 
orders,  superior  and  inferior,  and  were  assisted  by  young 
girls  of  the  highest  families,  who  gathered  flowers,  wove 
mirlands,  and  embroidered  veils  for  the  statues.  In  the 
temples  of  Venus,  and  also  of  Cybele,  were  troops  of  young 
men  and  women  employed  as  dancers  ;  mostly  slaves  sent 
as  gifts  to  the  goddess.  They  are  often  represented  oh 
antifpie  vases,  standing  on  tiptoe,  with  arms  gracefully 
raised,  turning  their  sle-nder  forms  in  the  undulating  move- 
ments of  some  sacred  dance.  All  the  money  these  women 
received  from  their  lovers  was  j)aid   into  the  treasury  of 


GREECE    AND   ROME.  301 

the  priests.     Several  temples  of  Venus  were  built  with 
funds  thus  obtained. 

The  Romans  instituted  an  order  of  priestesses,  six  in 
number,  called  the  Vestal  Virgins.     Tliey  were  required 
to  be  of  good  family,  free  from  bodily  defects,  and  not 
more  than  ten  years  old,  or  less  than  six,  at  the  time  of 
consecration.      They  took   a  vow  of  strict  chastity,  the 
breach  of  which  was  supposed  to  bring  calamities  on  the 
whole  people.     If  any  one  was  detected  in  breaking  this 
vow,  she  was  buried  alive.     In  the  course  of  the  thousand 
years,  during  which  this  order  existed,  only  thirteen  were 
thus  punished  for  violation  of  their  oath.     They  wore  long 
white  linen  robes,  with  a  white  vest  edged  with  purple. 
Their  hair  was  cut  short  and  bound  with  a  close  fillet.     It 
was  their  business  to  keep  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta  burning 
perpetually  on  the  altar  of  her  temple  day  and  night,  to 
offer  prayers  and  sacrifices  for  the  good  of  the  state,  and 
instruct  their  successors  in  office.     If  the  fire  chanced  to 
go  out,  it  Avas  deemed  an  omen  of  some,  great  national 
calamity.    In  such  a  case,  the  careless  Vestal  was  severely 
scourged  by  the  High  Priest,  and  the  fire  was  rekindled 
from  rays  of  the  sun  brought  to  a  focus  with  something 
like  burning  glasses;  the  process  being  accompanied  with 
solemn  ceremonies  and  prayers.     When  these  priestesses 
appeared  in  public,  they  were  treated  with   the  greatest 
veneration.    Any  insult  to  them  was  a  capital  offence.     If 
they  met  a  criminal  on  his  way  to  execution,  he  was  set  at 
liberty,  if  they  declared  the   meeting  accidental.      They 
were  handsomely  maintained  at  public  expense,  and  after 
thirty  years  of  service,  were  at  liberty  either  to  remain  in 
the  temple,  or  go  out  and  marry.     Polygamy  was  discoun- 
tenanced in  Greece,  and  forbidden  by  law  in  Rome. 

Oblations  and  sacrifices  to  the  gods  varied  at  diiferent 
epochs  of  time,  and  according  to  the  characters  of  the 
deities.  In  the  rude  ages,  it  was  customary  to  sacrifice 
beautiful  girls  to  Cybele  ;  but  afterward,  in  lieu  of  this, 
they  made  a  present  of  slaves  to  her  temi)le.  Young 
maidens  used  to  be  sacrificed  to  Diana,  but  afterward  they 
Vol.  I.— 2G 


802  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

were  merely  scourged  at  her  altar.  It  was  often  supposed 
the  gods  demanded  the  sacrifice  of  a  human  being,  to  atone 
for  some  sin,  or  avert  some  calamity.  AVhen  the  Greek 
army  was  detained  at  Aulis,  by  contrary  winds,  the  augurs 
being  consulted,  declared  that  one  of  the  kings  had  offended 
Diana,  and  she  demanded  the  sacrifice  of  his  daughter 
Iphigenia.  It  was  like  taldng  the  father's  life-blood,  but 
lie  was  persuaded  that  it  was  his  duty  to  submit  for  the 
good  of  his  country.  Tlie  maiden  was  brought  forth  for 
sacrifice,  in  spite  of  her  tears  and  supplications;  but  just 
as  the  priest  was  about  to  strike  the  fatal  blow,  Iphigenia 
suddenly  disappeared,  and  a  goat  of  uncommon  beauty 
stood  in  her  place.  The  priests  judged  by  fovoarable 
omens  that  the  gods  accepted  the  animal  for  sacrifice,  and 
the  princess  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of  Diana's  tem- 
ple. In  Sparta,  it  being  declared  upon  one  occasion  that 
the  gods  demanded  a  human  victim,  the  choice  was  made 
by  lot,  and  fell  on  a  damsel  named  Helena.  But  when  all 
was  in  readiness,  an  eagle  descended,  carried  away  the 
priest's  knife,  and  laid  it  on  the  head  of  a  heifer,  which 
was  sacrificed  in  her  stead.  The  Spartans  henceforth  abol- 
ished such  immolations,  considering  this  an  omen  that  they 
were  not  acceptable  to  the  deities.  Such  sacrifices  were 
always  rare  among  the  Grecians,  and  when  they  did  occur, 
it  was  usually  in  obedience  to  some  oracle.  The  infernal 
gods,  and  the  manes  of  ancestors,  were  supposed  peculiarly 
to  require  human  victims.  Prisoners  taken  in  war  were 
frequently  offered  to  appease  the  ghosts  of  those  who  had 
been  slain  by  their  countrymen.  Achilles  sacrificed  tvrelve 
young  Trojans  at  the  funeral  of  his  friend  Patroclus. 
Aristomencs  sacrificed  three  hundred  captives  at  once,  one 
of  whom  was  a  king  of  Sparta.  The  custom  was  never 
favoured  at  Home.  Numa,  who  succeeded  Romulus,  mani- 
fested extreme  reluctance  to  offer  human  sacrifices.  Len- 
tulus,  Consul  of  Home  about  seventy  years  before  Christ, 
prohiV)ited  the  practice.  Tiberius,  fourteen  years  after  our 
era,  and  Adrian  one  hundred  and  seventeen  years  after, 
publislicil   edicts  to    the   same  cd'cct.      Comniodus,   more 


GREECE   AXD   ROME.  303 

Ihan  half  a  century  afterward,  offered  a  human  victim  to 
Mithra.  Yery  rare  instances  are  said  to  have  occurred 
in  some  parts  of  the  Koinan  empire  as  late  as  our  fourth 
century. 

The  old  Braminical  idea  that  every  sin  must  have  its 
prescribed  amount  of  punishment,  and  that  the  gods  would 
acc':pt  the  life  of  one  person  as  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
otl  ers,  prevailed  also  in  Greece  and  Eome;  but  there  it 
mimly  took  the  form  of  heroic  self-sacrifice  for  the  ])ublic 
gotxl.  Cicero  says:  "The  force  of  religion  was  so  great 
aroong  our  ancestors,  that  some  of  their  commanders  have, 
"w  i'';h  their  faces  veiled,  and  with  the  strongest  expressions 
c[  sincerity,  sacrificed  themselves  to  the  immortal  gods  to 
yave  their  country."  An  oracle  having  declared  that  the 
Athenians  would  overcome  the  Thracians  if  the  daughter 
of  the  king  was  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  she  cheerfully 
offered  to  die.  Afterwards,  his  three  other  daughters 
volunteered  themselves  as  victims,  to  avert  a  pestilence, 
supposed  to  be  sent  in  punishment  for  the  sins  of  the 
people.  The  plague  was  stayed,  and  the  public  testified 
gratitude  by  erecting  a  temple  to  their  memory.  In  times 
of  calamity  it  was  common  in  some  parts  of  Italy  for  u 
young  man  to  offer  himself  as  an  expiatory  sacrifice  to 
Apollo.  He  was  very  richly  dressed,  and  after  certain 
religious  ceremonies  ran  full  speed  to  a  precipice,  whence 
he  threw  himself  into  the  sea.  Codrns,  the  last  king  of 
Athens,  sought  death  in  the  fore-front  of  the  battle,  be- 
cause an  oracle  had  declared  that  they  Avhose  general 
should  be  slain  would  gain  the  victory.  It  is  recorded 
tiiat  three  hundred  and  sixty-two  years  before  our  era,  the 
earth  opened  in  the  Roman  forum,  and  pestilential  vapors 
issued  from  the  chasm.  An  oracle  declared  it  would  close 
whenever  that  which  constituted  the  glory  of  Rome  should 
be  thrown  into  it.  A  noble  youth,  named  Marcus  Cnrtius, 
inquired  whether  anything  in  Rome  was  more  precious 
than  arms  and  courage.  The  oracle  having  answered  in 
the  negative,  he  arrayed  himself  in  armour,  mounted  a 
horse    richly    caparisoned,    solemnly    devoted    himself  to 


304  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

death  in  presence  of  the  people,  and  leaped  into  the  abvss, 
which  instantly  closed  over  him. 

In  primitive  ages,  when  men  lived  mostly  on  vegetables, 
they  offered  only  water,  grain,  salt,  fruit,  and  flowers  to 
'the  gods,  to  propitiate  them,  and  thereby  obtain  temporal 
blessings.  But  when  they  began  to  eat  meat  and  spices 
and  drink  wine,  they  offered  the  same ;  naturally  supposing 
the  deities  would  be  pleased  with  whatever  was  useful  or 
agreeable  to  themselves.  They  imagined  that  some  gods 
were  partial  to  human  victims,  some  to  animals,  others  to 
fruit  and  flowers.  To  the  celestial  gods  they  offered  white 
victims,  at  sunrise,  or  in  open  day.  To  the  Manes,  and 
infernal  deities,  they  sacrificed  black  animals  in  the  night. 
Each  god  had  some  creature  peculiarly  devoted  to  his 
worship.  They  sacrificed  a  bull  to  Mars,  a  dove  to  Yenus, 
and  to  Minerva,  a  heifer  without  blemish,  which  had  never 
been  put  to  the  yoke.  If  a  man  was  too  poor  to  sacrifice 
a  living  animal,  he  offered  an  image  of  one  made  with 
bread.  The  aerial  deities  were  thought  to  delight  in  h;(r- 
inonious  sounds ;  therefore,  while  they  sacrificed  to  them, 
they  played  on  musical  instruments,  and  danced  round  the 
altar,  singing  sacred  hymns.  Most  of  the  ancient  nations 
believed  the  gods  were  affected  by  music,  the  same  as  men. 
The  temples  were  full  of  votive  offerings,  such  as  garlands, 
crowns,  vases,  and  golden  cups.  In  the  temples  of  JEscu- 
lapius  were  a  multitude  of  e3'-es,  ears,  hands,  feet,  and 
other  nr.cmbers  of  the  human  body,  made  of  wax,  silver, 
or  gold,  and  presented  by  those  whom  the  god  had  cured 
of  blindness,  deafness,  and  other  diseases.  Sailors  carried 
small  ships  to  Neptune,  in  token  of  gratitude  for  being 
saved  from  shipwreck.  Fishermen  suspended  nets  in 
honour  of  the  Nereids.  Groves  consecrated  to  Pan  were 
hung  with  pij)os  and  garlands,  by  shepherds,  thankful  for 
the  multiplication  of  their  flocks  and  herds.  Sometimes 
tablets  were  affixed  to  the  walls  of  temples,  explaining  the 
cause  of  the  ofi'd-ing.  In  solemn  promises  and  contracts, 
men  invoked  the  gods,  and  women  tlie  goddesses.  They 
Bwore  by  the  Manes  of  ancestors,  l)y  the  Spirits  oi'  sun, 


GREECE    AND    ROME.  305 

moon,  stars,  eartli,  and  rivers;  but  tlicy  deemed  it  irrev- 
erent to  do  so  on  slight  occasions.  Before  every  under- 
taking, great  or  small,  all  classes  invoked  the  assistance 
of  the  gods.  They  burned  incense,  or  poured  libations  of 
wine  on  the  altars,  with  prayers,  before  they  started  on  a 
journey,  or  entertained  a  stranger,  or  retired  to  sleep. 
At  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  or  moon,  people 
throughout  Greece  might  be  seen  prostrating  themselves, 
and  uttering  invocations  to  the  deities.  Humble  depen- 
dence on  the  gods,  and  frequent  prayers,  were  everywhere 
strictly  inculcated.  Mortals  were  taught  to  expect  divine 
assistance  in  the  hour  of  need  in  proportion  to  the  number 
and  value  of  their  offerings.  Some  carried  their  devotional 
feelings  to  such  an  extreme  degree,  that  they  spent  nearly 
all  their  time  in  offering  prayers  and  sacrifices.  The  most 
universal  and  earnest  entreaty  was  that  their  children 
might  survive  them ;  it  being  considered  a  great  misfor- 
tune to  leave  no  one  in  the  world  who  would  consider  it 
a  sacred  duty  to  perform  religious  ceremonies  for  their  de- 
parted souls.  The  Spartans  never  used  but  one  form  of 
prayer,  and  that  was  very  laconic  :  "  May  the  gods  grant 
whatever  is  honourable  and  good  for  us,  and  enable  us  to 
endure  misfortunes."  In  every  part  of  Greece  the  hearth- 
stone was  sacred  to  Vesta,  goddess  of  fire.  If  an}^  wan- 
derer took  refuge  there,  though  he  might  be  the  most 
deadly  enemy,  he  was  safe  from  hostility,  and  had  his 
wants  supplied.  They  not  only  scrupulously  observed  all 
the  religious  rites  handed  down  by  their  ancestors,  but  in 
Athens  they  kept  a  solemn  feast  every  new  moon  in 
honour  of  all  the  gods,  including  those  of  nations  with 
whom  they  were  connected  by  commerce.  So  fearful 
were  they  of  omitting  any,  they  even  erected  altars  to 
unknown  gods.  The  welfare  of  individuals  and  the  pros- 
perity of  the  state  was  supposed  to  be  hazarded  by  any 
neglect  of  the  established  worship.  Cicero  says:  "We 
may  be  assured  that  Borne  owes  her  grandeur  and  success 
to  the  conduct  of  those  who  were  tenacious  of  their  reli- 
gious duties." 
Vol.  I.— 26* 


306  PROGRESS   OF   RELTGIOUS   IDEAS. 

On  some  great  national  occasions,  they  sacrificed  a  hun- 
dred, or  even  a  thousand,  animals  at  a  time.  All  persons 
admitted  to  solemn  sacrifices  were  required  to  abstain  from 
sensual  pleasures  for  several  days  previous,  and  perform 
ceremonies  of  purification  with  water  brought  from  fi-esh, 
flowing  streams.  In  the  vestibule  of  temples  stood  a 
marble  vase  filled  with  holy  water,  with  which  all  who 
were  admitted  to  the  interior  were  sprinkled  as  they  passed. 
Water  consecrated  by  priests  was  considered  efficacious  as 
a  preservative  from  evil,  and  to  cleanse  from  all  pollution. 
It  was  called  Lustral  Water,  from  a  word  signifying  to 
purify.  It  was  used  to  sprinkle  the  markets,  the  fountains, 
and  the  streets  of  cities,  in  time  of  pestilence,  and  was 
always  employed  at  funerals;  the  presence  of  death  being 
regarded  as  contaminatino-. 

The  priests  wore  rich  robes,  of  colours  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion, and  not  bound  by  any  girdle.  They  sacrificed  to 
Ceres  in  white,  to  the  celestial  gods  in  purple,  and  to  the 
infernal  ones  in  black.  If  they  had  touched  a  dead  body, 
or  a  diseased  person,  or  their  garments  had  been  in  any 
way  polluted,  it  was  unlawful  for  them  to  officiate.  Some- 
times they  wore  a  mitre,  and  were  always  crowned  with 
laurel,  or  other  garlands.  While  they  prayed,  they  held 
green  branches  in  their  hands,  usually  of  laurel  or  olive. 
If  doubtful  whether  their  petitions  would  be  granted,  they 
touched  the  knees  of  the  statues  with  these  boughs  ;  if 
hopeful,  they  touched  the  right  hand,  but  never  the  left, 
because  that  was  deemed  unlucky.  Sometimes,  in  extreme 
humility  of  supplication,  they  kissed  the  feet  of  the  statue, 
and  knelt  or  prostrated  themselves  on  the  ground.  They 
prayed  to  the  celestial  gods  with  hands  uplifted  toward 
heaven,  or  the  image  of  him  they  addressed,  and  concluded 
by  kissing  their  right  hand  to  the  statue;  but  wlien  they 
invoked  the  sid)1cn-ancan  deities,  they  turned  their  hands 
downward.  I'he  aniuKils  to  be  sacrificed,  having  been 
examined  by  the  ])i'iests  and  ])ronounccd  unblemished, 
were  led  to  the  temple  covered  with  gai'lands.  Sometimes, 
on  occasions  of  solemn   thaidvsgiving,   their   horns  were 


GREECE   AND   EOME,  807 

gilded.  The  altar  was  tlirce  times  sprinkled  by  dipping  a 
laurel  branch  in  holy  water,  and  the  people  assembled 
round  it  were  three  times  sprinkled  also.  Fraidcincense 
was  taken  from  the  censer  with  three  fingers,  and  strewed 
upon  the  altar  three  times ;  that  number  being  scrupulously 
observed  in  most  religious  ceremonies,  because  an  oracle 
had  declared  that  all  sacred  things  ought  to  be  in  threes. 
Before  the  sacrifice,  the  chief  priest  called  upon  the  assem- 
bly to  unite  with  him  in  prayer  that  the  gods  would  accept 
their  offerings,  and  grant  them  health  and  happiness.  He 
then  took  a  cup  of  wine,  and  having  tasted  it  himself,  he 
caused  the  people  to  do  the  same,  and  poured  the  remainder 
between  the  horns  of  the  victim.  If  the  beast  escaped  the 
sacrificing  stroke,  or  struggled,  or  bellowed,  it  was  thought 
an  unlucky  omen.  Portions  were  reserved  for  the  priests 
and  servitors  of  the  temple,  and  the  remainder  was  burned 
with  frankincense  and  wine.  When  the  ceremonies  were 
all  completed,  they  had  a  grand  feast. 

They  used  awful  forms  of  imprecation  to  invoke  the 
infernal  deities.  The  curses  of  parents,  kings,  priests,  or 
prophets,  were  peculiarly  dreaded;  it  being  thought  there 
was  no  possible  way  to  avoid  the  effects.  Homer  thus 
describes  a  woman  whose  son  had  killed  his  uncle  : 

"She  beat  the  grournl,  and  called  the  Powers  beneath 
On  her  own  son  to  wreak  her  brother's  deatli. 
Hell  heard  her  curses  from  the  realms  profound, 
And  the  red  tieuds  that  walk  their  nightly  round." 

Alcibiades  being  accused  of  mutilating  the  statues  of 
Hermes,  and  imitating  the  Mysteries  of  Ceres,  was  sen- 
tenced to  exile  from  Athens,  and  to  be  cursed  by  all  the 
})riests  and  priestesses.  They  all  obeyed  except  Theano, 
who  said  she  was  appointed  to  the  priesthood  to  bless  and 
not  to  curse.  It  was  a  common  opinion  that  prayers 
were  more  efficacious  in  an  ancient  tongue,  because  gods 
better  liked  the  primitive  language  of  men,  as  being 
nearer  to  nature.  Hence  it  was  usual  for  magicians  to  pro- 
iK^unce  their  incantations  in  words  unknown  to  the  people. 


308  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

The  religions  festivals  in  Greece  were  very  numerous, 
and  some  of  them    exceedingly  magnificent.     They  had 
flowery  processions  in  the  spring-time,  and  processions  with 
sheaf-offerings  iu  the  autumn.    The  days  observed  in  honour 
of  deities  and  heroes  were  innumerable.     It  was  a  law  that 
during  any  of   their  great   religious  festivals  uo  person 
should  be  insulted  or  slandered.     The  most  solemn  of  them 
all  were  the  Mysteries  of  Isis,  introduced  from  Egypt,  and 
called  by  Greeks  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  sacred  to  Ceres. 
The  men  and  women  initiated  into  these  Mysteries  were 
thought  to  be  peculiarly  under  the  care  of  the  gods  in  this 
life,  and  secure  of  the  best  places  in  Elysium.     Not  to  ob- 
serve them,  was  a  reproach  to  any  public  man.     The  ene- 
mies of  Socrates  brought  it  as  a  heavy  charge  against  him. 
No  foreigner  was  admitted,  and  if  any  uninitiated  person 
happened  to  be  present  by  mistake,  he  was  put  to  death. 
If  a  member  divulged  any  portion  of  the  secrets,  he  was 
condemned  to  die;  and  it  was  deemed  unsafe  to  remain 
under  the  same  roof  with  him,  for  fear  of  some  divine 
judgment.     The  poet  Jj^schylus  was  in  great  danger  of 
losing  his  life,  because  he  was  suspected  of  having  alluded 
to  the  Mysteries  in  one  of  his  dramas.     No  person  who 
had  accidentally  killed  another,  or  been  guilty  of  any  crime, 
or  convicted  of  witchcraft,  was  allowed  to  enter.    To  some 
of  the  interior  mysteries,  none  but  priests  were  ever  ad- 
mitted.    The  High  Priest  wlu^  olTiciated  on  these  occasions, 
was  vowed  to  celibacy,  and  required  to  devote  himself  en- 
tirely to  divine  things.     This  festival  was  observed  every 
five  years,  and  continued  nine  days.     On  the  last  day,  the 
candidates  for  initiation  having  gone  through  a  probation 
of  fasting,  purification,  sacrifices,  and   prayers,  were  ad- 
mitted for  the  first  time  to  the  Mysteries.     What  these  were 
is  unknown,  but  some  of  the  external  circumstances  are 
recorded.     At  eventide  the  priests  led  them  to  a  vast  edi- 
fice called  the  Afystical  Temple.     At  the  entrance,  they 
washed  their  hands  in  consecrated  water,  being  admonished 
to  present  themselves  with  pure  minds,  without  whi(;h  ex- 
ternal cleanness  would  be  of  no  avail.     With  a  loud  voice, 


OREKCE    AND    ROME.  309 

the  i)ricsts  warned  all  the  profane  to  retire,  and  the  vvor- 
shii){)ers  remained  alone.  Thunders  rolled  around  them, 
lightning  flashed  across  the  thick  darkness,  and  revealed 
startling  apparitions  as  it  passed.  At  last,  the  inner 
doors  were  opened.  The  interior  of  the  temple  burst  upon 
them  in  a  blaze  of  light,  and  strains  of  ravishing  music 
floated  through  the  air.  The  statue  of  Ceres  stood  in  the 
midst,  splendidly  adorned.  On  her  head  were  the  horns 
of  the  lunar  crescent,  and  her  robe  was  covered  with  shin- 
ing stars.  In  one  hand  she  held  a  basket  of  grain,  in  the 
other,  the  Egyptian  musical  instrument  called  a  sistrum. 
One  foot  rested  on  the  ocean,  the  other  was  stepping  on  the 
earth.  At  the  foot  of  this  statue,  priests  crowned  the  no- 
vitiates with  garlands  of  sacred  myrtle.  Then  followed  a 
series  of  stately  pageants,  which  it  is  supposed  were  in- 
tended to  represent  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  progress 
of  society  out  of  barbarism,  the  passage  of  the  soul  through 
death,  frightful  pictures  of  tortures  in  Tartarus,  and  en- 
chantinsf  visions  of  the  Elvsian  Fields.  Whatever  mig-ht 
have  been  the  purport  of  these  things,  the  writings  of  the 
ancients  indicate  that  they  made  a  profound  and  solemn 
impression  on  those  who  witnessed  them.  The  garments 
worn  at  initiation  were  deemed  very  sacred.  They  were 
never  laid  aside  till  much  worn,  and  then  they  Avere  pre- 
served as  swaddling  clothes  fc^r  their  children,  or  consecrated 
to  Ceres.  The  Unity  of  God,  the  immortal  progress  and 
destiny  of  the  soul,  and  other  secret  doctrines,  were  taught 
in  the  sanctuary,  to  an  initiated  few ;  but  elsewhere,  they 
were  veiled  in  symbols.  Nearly  all  the  religious  hymns 
and  odes  used  on  this  and  similar  occasions  are  entirely 
lost.  The  sublimity  of  their  character  may  be  inferred 
from  the  following  prose  translation  of  a  Hymn  to  Jupiter, 
written  by  Cleanthes,  a  stoic  philosopher,  who  died  two 
hundred  and  forty  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ : 

"Hail,  Great  King,  and  Father  of  the  Gods!  Thou, 
who  hast  many  names,  but  who  art  One,  sole,  omnipotent 
Virtue  !  Jupiter,  Author  of  Nature,  who  governest  all 
things  by  thy  wisdom!  allow  mortals  to  call   upon  thee; 


310  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

for  all  tilings  that  exist  are  thy  offspring,  images  of  thj 
being,  echoes  of  thy  eternal  voice.  I  will  sing  to  thee,  and 
exalt  thy  power  without  end.  The  whole  universe  moves 
by  thy  influence.  The  infinite  variety  of  soids  that  in- 
habit earth,  sea,  and  the  ethereal  spheres,  are  subject  to 
thy  wise  control.  The  lightnings  are  thy  ministers.  Tliey 
flash  from  thy  powerful  hand,  and  all  nature  trembles. 
Thus  thunder-armed,  thou  guidest  creation  by  an  unerring 
law,  and  through  the  present  admixture  of  evil  thou 
guidest  all  to  good.  Thou  curbest  all  excess,  and  wilt 
cause  all  confusion  to  result  in  universal  and  eternal  order. 
Unhappy  are  mortals  ignorant  of  thy  law,  which,  if  they 
obeyed,  would  lead  them  into  a  virtuous  and  happy  life. 
In  blind  frenzy  they  stray  from  the  chief  good,  tempted 
by  thirst  of  glory,  or  shameless  avarice,  or  voluptuous 
pleasures.  But  oh,  great  Jupiter,  giver  of  all  good,  who 
dwellest  with  lio;htnino;s  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  save 
mankind  from  these  dreadful  errors !  Eemove  all  shadows 
from  our  minds,  and  enable  us  to  understand  thy  pure 
and  righteous  laws.  Thus  honoured  with  a  knowledge  of 
thee,  we  shall  be  fitted  to  return  the  gift  in  praises  of  thy 
mighty  works;  and  neither  mortal  nor  immortal  beings 
can  be  more  blest  than  in  singing  thy  immutable,  universal 
law  with  everlasting  hymns." 

The  Greeks  had  four  national  games,  intended  to  excite 
to  honourable  ambition,  and  preserve  manliness  of  char- 
acter in  the  citizens.  The  most  solemn  and  magniticent  of 
these  were  the  Olympian,  dedicated  to  Jupiter.  Prizes 
were  given  for  wrestling,  leaping,  chariot-racing,  music, 
poetry,  eloquence,  painting,  and  sculpture;  thus  consecrat- 
ing to  the  gods  all  strength  of  body  and  cultivation  of 
mind.  The  prize  was  simply  a  crown  of  olive  l(\\ves,  but 
he  wdio  obtained  it  was  cai'ried  lioinc  in  a  triumphal  chariot 
in  the  midst  of  acclamations,  was  honoured  with  a  high 
place  on  all  great  occasions,  and  ever  after  niaintained  at  the 
j)ublic  cxpi^nse.  They  were  celebrated  every  fourth  year, 
and  continued  live  days.  No  women  excerpt  priestesses  of 
Ceres  were  allowed  to  be  present.     All  hostilities  ceased 


GREECP]   AND   ROME.  311 

during  tliese  games,  and  states  at  deadly  >var  witli  each 
other  met  in  friendship.  By  general  consent  of  all  Greece, 
no  war  or  violence  was  ever  allowed  to  enter  the  sacred 
territory  of  Elis,  where  this  festival  was  observed.  Pau- 
sanias  says:  "Many  things  may  a  man  see  and  hear  in 
Greece  worthy  of  admiration;  but  above  them  all,  the  do- 
ings at  Eleusis  and  the  sights  of  Olympia  have  somewhat 
in  them  of  a  soul  divine." 

The  Panathenaja  was  a  festival  dedicated  to  ]\[inerva,  in 
which  the  citizens  of  Athens  of  all  classes  and  ages  were 
represented.  It  was  observed  once  iu  five  years,  and  lasted 
several  days,  during  which  they  had  a  race  through  the 
streets  with  torches,  a  mimic  sca-light,  performances  on 
musical  instruments,  circular  choruses  of  many  hundred 
voices,  dramatic  representations,  and  dances  by  young 
boys  in  armour.  The  sacred  garment  of  Minerva,  em- 
broidered with  gold  by  two  young  virgins  appointed  to  that 
service,  was  carried  in  pi'ocession  through  the  streets  of 
Athens  to  her  magnificent  temple  called  the  Parthenon. 
There  were  troops  of  young  girls  wreathed  with  flowers, 
carrying  baskets  and  vases ;  the  most  vigorous  old  men 
carrying  olive  branches,  animals  for  sacrifice  covered  with 
garlands,  middle-aged  men  with  shields  and  spears,  young 
men  crowned  with  millet,  singing  hymns,  foreigners  and 
their  families  bearing  little  boats,  and  bands  of  young 
children  in  festal  robes.  This  occasion  was  considered  so 
holy  that  all  })risoners  were  released,  and  men  distin- 
guished for  bravery  or  wisdom  received  a  crown  of  gold. 

At  Rome,  games  in  honour  of  the  Great  Gods  were  an- 
nually performed  in  the  Circus.  The  festival,  which  lasted 
ten  days,  began  with  a  magnificent  procession.  The  statues 
of  the  Great  Gods  were  carried  throngh  tlie  princi[)al  streets 
to  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline  Mi)unt.  The 
splendid  chariots  in  which  they  were  conveyed  were  drawn 
by  superb  horses,  camels,  elephants,  stags,  and  sometimes 
by  lions  and  tigers.  The  chief  magistrate  led  the  van,  and 
before  him  was  carried  the  winged  Goddess  of  the  Fortune 
of  Rome.     There  was  an  immense  concourse  of  nobles  on 


812  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

horseback,  boys  leading  horses  for  the  races,  musicians 
playing  on  a  variety  of  instruments,  women  and  youths 
winding  through  the  mazes  of  a  dance,  and  people  dressed 
as  Nj^niphs,  Fauns,  Satyrs,  and  Sileni,  carrying  large  gar- 
lands of  flowers.  The  procession  closed  with  the  High 
Priest,  the  Augurs  carrying  the  Sibylline  Books,  a  long 
train  of  subordinate  priests,  and  the  Vestal  Virgins,  After 
sacrifices  to  the  gods  were  performed  in  the  Circus,  music 
struck  up,  and  the  games  commenced.  The  expense  at- 
tending these  exhibitions  was  immense.  At  one  of  these 
festivals,  it  is  said  that  five  hundred  lions  and  eighteen 
elephants  were  slain  in  five  days,  in  the  combats  of  wild 
beasts. 

The  Dionysia,  or  Bacchanalia,  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  were 
celebrated  when  the  vines  be^an  to  bud.  Magistrates  and 
chief  priests  presided.  In  the  da3^time  they  had  feasts, 
music,  and  dramatic  representations.  In  the  evening,  pro- 
cessions of  men  and  women  went  about  dancing,  shouting, 
feii>'ninc<  intoxication,  and  makinij:  all  manner  of  antic  mo- 
tions.  They  were  masked,  crowned  with  ivy  or  grape 
leaves,  and  dressed  in  fawn  skins,  to  imitate  Pan,  Silenus, 
the  Satyrs,  and  other  attendants  on  Bacchus.  They  made 
a  great  noise  with  drums,  pipes,  and  rattles.  Tliey  carried 
drinking  cups,  and  spears  twined  with  ivy,  and  poles  ter- 
minating in  a  pine  cone,  or  surmounted  by  the  emblem  of 
generation,  to  signify  the  fructifying  power  of  tlie  sun 
upon  the  earth  in  spring  time.  From  the  worship  of  Osi- 
ris, in  Egypt,  this  emblem  was  transferred  to  Grecco,  where 
it  was  called  the  phallus;  thence  U)  Rome,  under  the  name 
of  the  lingam.  It  was  sometimes  made  of  gold,  twined 
with  garlands,  and  surmounted  by  a  golden  star.  The 
thyrsus,  or  pine  cone  of  Bacchus,  often  terminated  in  the 
Egyptian  Cross,  whicii  has  already  been  explained  to  have 
a  similar  signification. 

llomans  o\)served  a  festival  called  Saturnalia,  to  com- 
memorate th(^  primeval  equality  of  mankind  in  the  Golden 
Age  of  Satuii;.  It  continued  five  days,  during  which 
masters  waited   up(^u   theii'  servants.     Slaves  were  richly 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  31S 

dressed,  and  assumed  the  cap  usually  worn  only  by  free- 
men ;  a  custom  in  which  the  modern  Liberty  Cap  origi 
nated.  All  labour  was  suspended,  many  prisoners  were  lib- 
erated, people  interchanged  presents  with  each  other,  and 
indulged  in  all  manner  of  jests  with  their  superiors,  with- 
out fear  of  giving  offence.  The  temple  of  Saturn  was  bril- 
liantly illuminated,  and  festivities  abounded  everywhere. 

At  the  festival  of  Cybele,  Mother*  of  the  Gods,  a  whole 
day  was  spent  in  blowing  trumpets.  lier  image,  seated  in  a 
chariot  drawn  b}^  lions,  or  oxen,  was  carried  in  procession, 
accompanied  by  the  clash  of  cymbals,  and  the  thundering 
sound  of  numerous  drums.  Like  Isis,  she  was  the  Goddess 
of  Fruitful  Nature,  who,  under  one  name  or  another,  was 
adored  in  almost  every  country.  Her  worship  was  intro- 
duced from  Asia  Minor,  and  was  characterized  by  several 
savage  and  gloomy  customs,  inharmonious  with  the  smil- 
ing and  graceful  character  of  Greece  ;  but  it  had  a  place, 
because  it  met  the  wants  of  stern,  fanatical  temperaments. 
Her  priests,  called  Corybantes,  deprived  themselves  of  man- 
hood. They  excited  themselves  into  strange  frenzies,  by 
wild  and  clamorous  music,  and  their  utterance,  while  under 
this  inspiration,  was  deemed  prophetic.  In  some  parts  of 
Greece,  bands  of  mendicant  devotees  were  continually  wan- 
dering about,  wearing  images  of  Cybele  on  their  breasts, 
and  making  a  great  noise  with  cymbals,  to  extort  alms. 
There  were  generally  soothsayers  among  them,  who  gained 
money  from  the  people  by  predicting  their  fortunes. 

The  festivals  of  Apollo  and  Diana  were  celebrated  with 
great  pomp  at  the  sacred  island  of  Delos.  It  was  unlaw- 
ful to  put  any  criminal  to  death  during  the  preparation  and 
celebration  of  these  ceremonies.  When  the  splendid  pro- 
cession returned  through  the  streets  of  Athens,  people  ran 
to  their  doors  and  made  profound  obeisance  as  it  passed. 

On  the  twenty-fifth  of  December,  a  festival  in  honour  of 
Bacchus  was  held  to  commemorate  the  return  of  the  sun  from 
the  winter  solstice,  to  revivify  the  vineyards  and  give  flavour 
to  the  wines.  In  later  times,  when  many  Persian  ceremo- 
nies were  introduced  into  Eome,  the  same  day  was  held 
Vol.  1.— 27  o 


314  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

as  a  festival  in  honour  of  Mithras,  their  Spirit  of  the  San. 

Of  all  the  Grecian  states,  Sparta  alone  had  a  law  that 
men  should  serve  the  gods  with  as  little  expense  as  pos- 
sible. Being  asked  the  reason  of  this,  Lycurgus  answered : 
"Lest  at  any  time  the  service  of  the  gods  should  be  inter- 
mitted;" for  he  feared,  if  religion  were  as  expensive  as  in 
other  parts  of  Greece,  it  might  happen  that  out  of  poverty 
of  some,  and  covetousness  of  others,  worship  would  be 
neglected ;  and  he  conceived  sincere  devotion  to  be  more 
pleasing  to  the  deities  than  costly  sacrifices.  The  Athe- 
nians being  several  times  defeated  by  the  Spartans,  sent  to 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  to  inquire  why  they,  who 
served  the  gods  with  more  pomp  and  splendour  than  all 
the  other  Grecians,  were  conquered  by  Spartans,  who  were 
so  mean  in  their  worship.  The  oracle  mei'ely  replied,  that 
the  simple'sincere  service  of  Spartans  was  more  acceptable 
to  divine  powers  than  the  costly  offerings  of  other  people. 

Two  species  of  divination  were  employed  by  the  Greeks. 
The  first  was  supposed  to  be  a  direct  inspiration  of  the 
gods,  without  any  human  effort ;  the  second  was  by  the 
performance  of  certain  mysterious  rites,  the  rules  of  which 
were  believed  to  have  been  made  known  by  the  gods  to  holy 
men  in  ancient  times.  Prophecy  by  direct  inspiration  was 
of  three  kinds.  First,  through  people  believed  to  be  possessed 
by  Si)irits,  that  spoke  out  of  their  breast  or  belly,  they 
themselves  remaining  motionless  and  speechless  all  the 
wdiile ;  second,  by  those  who  were  seized  with  a  sudden  and 
inexplicable  frenzy;  these  were  called  enthusiasts;  third, 
by  those  who  fell  into  stupors  and  trances,  and  spoke  of 
strange  things  they  saw  and  heard.  '^IMie  s[)cecli  of  all  tliese 
classes  was  deemed  oracular.  Music  was  often  resorted  to 
to  excite  prophetic  frenzy.  Cicero  says  :  "  They  whose 
mhids,  scorning  the  limitations  of  the  bod}',  fly  and  rush 
abroad  when  inflamed  and  incited  by  some  ardour,  l>ehold 
things  which  they  ])redict.  Such  minds  which  inhere  not  in 
their  bodies,  are  inflamed  by  various  causes.  Some  are  in- 
cited by  a  certain  modulation  of  voices  and  l^hrygian  songs." 

Of  oracles  from  those  in  trances,   Kpin\enides  of  Creto 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  315 

is  an  example.  It  is  said,  that  being  sent  by  his  father  to 
tend  sheep,  he  entered  into  a  cave,  where  he  fell  asleep  and 
slept  for  fifty  years.  After  that,  he  had  the  power  of  send- 
ing his  soul  out  of  his  body,  and  recalling  it  at  pleasure. 
During  such  seasons,  he  appeared  perfectly  s'enseless  and 
entranced.  The  gods  held  familiar  intercourse  with  him, 
and  endowed  him  with  powers  of  prophecy.  A  terrible 
plague  desolated  Athens,  and  people  believed  the  city  was 
infested  by  Evil  Spirits.  Having  heard  the  fame  of  Epi- 
menides,  they  sent  a  vessel  to  bring  him  to  their  shores, 
though  Solon  strongly  disapproved  thereof  It  is  not  re- 
corded what  medical  remedies  he  advised  on  his  arrival, 
but  he  performed  many  religious  ceremonies  to  cleanse  the 
city.  He  scattered  a  flock  of  black  sheep  and  white  sheep, 
and  wherever  the  white  ones  lay  down  he  ordered  the 
Athenians  to  erect  an  altar  and  sacrifice  to  some  celestial 
god ;  wherever  the  black  ones  rested,  similar  honours  were 
paid  to  the  subterranean  deities.  The  altars  "to  unknown 
gods"  are  said  to  have  originated  in  this  circumstance. 
The  plague  ceased  soon  after,  and  it  was  attributed  to  his 
influence. 

It  is  likewise  said  of  Hermotiraus,  a  famous  prophet  of 
Clazomense,  that  his  soul  often  separated  itself  from  his 
body,  wandered  in  every  part  of  the  world  to  explain  futu- 
rity, and  after  a  time  returned  again.  On  one  of  these  oc- 
casions, his  wife  burned  the  insensible  body  according  to 
the  custom  at  Greek  funerals,  probably  supposing  him  to 
be  really  dead.  He  received  divine  honours  in  a  temple 
which  no  woman  AV'as  permitted  to  enter. 

It  is  not  recorded  whether  Cassandra,  princess  of  Troy, 
was  subject  to  trances,  or  any  peculiar  afiection  of  the 
nerves ;  but  it  is  stated  that  her  countrymen  considered 
her  insane,  and  disregarded  her  predictions,  which,  never- 
theless, came  true.  Tradition  says,  that  when  a  child,  she 
and  her  little  brother  played  in  the  vestibule  of  Apollo's 
temple,  and  staying  too  late  to  be  conveyed  home,  were 
put  to  sleep  in  the  temple  on  a  couch  of  laurel  leaves.  In 
the  morning,  their  nurses  found  them  unharmed,  though 


316  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

two  serpents  were  licking  their  ears.  From  that  time  hence- 
forth their  hearing  was  so  acute  that  they  could  distinguish 
the  voices  of  the  gods.  Another  tradition  was,  that  Apollo 
was  enamoured  of  Cassandra,  and  imparted  to  her  the 
gift  of  prophecy ;  but  when  she  refused  his  solicitations, 
he  added  that  her  words  should  never  be  believed.  In  all 
this  we  can  only  discover  that  Grecians  believed  Apollo, 
serpents,  and  laurel,  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with 
prophetic  inspiration.  She  continually  foretold  the  destruc- 
tion of  Troy,  and  warned  her  countrymen  against  the 
stratagem  of  the  wooden  horse,  by  which  the  city  was 
taken-  She  truly  foretold  the  manner  of  her  own  death, 
and  that  of  the  Grecian  conqueror,  who  carried  her  away 
captive,  ffinone,  the  first  wife  of  Paris,  is  said  to  have 
possessed  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  have  been  able  to 
perceive  the  medicinal  qualities  of  plants.  But  we  have 
no  information  by  which  we  can  conjecture  the  state  of  her 
health  or  the  condition  of  her  nerves. 

Almost  as  little  is  known  of  the  Roman  Sibyls,  a  name 
bestowed  on  women  supposed  to  be  inspired  by  the  gods. 
It  was  believed  that  Apollo  threw  them  into  a  kind  of 
ecstasy,  in  which  they  could  foresee  the  future.  Some 
philosophers  attributed  their  prophetic  power  to  disease,  or 
a  melancholy  state  of  mind.  The  most  famous  of  them 
was  the  Cumjcan  Sibyl,  said  to  have  written  the  collection 
of  verses  known  under  the  name  of  Sibylline  Books.  An 
unknown  old  woman  offered  nine  of  these  books  to  Tar- 
quin,  who  refused  to  buy  them,  on  account  of  the  great 
price.  She  burned  three,  and  returned  to  offer  six  for  the 
same  money.  Being  again  refused,  she  burned  three  more, 
and  came  back  to  offer  the  remainder  on  the  same  terms 
she  had  originally  proposed  for  the  whole.  The  king  being 
struck  by  her  mysterious  conduct,  sent  to  consult  the 
augurs.  When  they  had  examined  into  the  matter,  they 
lold  him  that  what  he  had  despised  was  a  divine  gift.  The 
books  were  accordingly  bought  at  the  jirice  demanded,  and 
laid  up  in  a  st<jne  chest  in  tlie  temple  of  Juj)iter.  By  de- 
grees, twelve  more  volumes  were  added,  and  two  men  were 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  317 

appointed  to  take  cliarge  of  them.  These  books  were  con- 
sulted with  much  formality  on  all  important  political  occa- 
sions. Among  other  prophecies,  they  declared  that  the 
golden  age  was  the  spring  of  the  world,  the  silver  age  its 
summer,  the  brazen  age  its  autumn,  the  iron  age  its  winter. 
Then  came  Deucalion's  Deluge,  and  all  things  were  de- 
stroyed. These  completed  the  Great  Astronomical  Year, 
when  the  same  process  was  renewed,  to  terminate  again  in 
the  same  way.  When  the  temple  of  Jupiter  was  burned, 
and  the  books  with  it,  delegates  were  sent  to  collect  such 
Sibylline  verses  as  could  be  found  scattered  through  the 
country.  After  the  priests  had  rejected  those  deemed  spu- 
rious, about  one  thousand  were  retained  and  placed  in  the 
new  temple,  preserved  in  chests  of  gold  under  the  pedestal 
of  Apollo's  statue.  So  many  predictions  were  set  afloat  by 
private  collections  of  these  verses,  some  of  them  not  un- 
likely to  be  troublesome  to  the  state,  that  laws  were  re- 
peatedly passed  for  the  destruction  of  all  except  the  genu- 
ine books  in  the  temple.  These  were  again  destroyed  by 
the  great  fire  in  Nero's  reign;  but  as  late  as  two  hundred 
and  seventy  years  after  Christ,  some  Eoman  senators  were 
in  favour  of  consulting  Sibylline  verses  concerning  a  pro- 
posed war. 

Of  prophecy  uttered  in  sudden  frenzy,  the  most  cele- 
brated was  the  oracle  at  Delphi.  There  was  a  deep  cavern 
at  this  place,  and  some  goats,  that  put  their  heads  into  the 
aperture,  were  observed  to  leap  wildlj^  and  make  strange 
noises.  When  the  herdsman  peeped  in,  to  discover  the 
cause,  he  too  began  to  jump  about  and  rave  like  a  mad- 
man. The  report  of  this  spread  rapidly,  and  many  came 
to  examine  the  miraculous  grotto.  All  who  inhaled  its 
atmosphere  talked  incoherently  for  a  time,  and  ancient 
reverence  for  all  unpremeditated  speech  caused  their  excla- 
mations to  be  taken  for  prophecies.  This  led  to  so  much 
confusion  that  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  people  to  ap- 
proach the  cavern.  A  seat,  called  a  tripod,  was  placed  at 
the  entrance,  and  a  woman,  chosen  by  the  priests,  was 
placed  there  during  one  month  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
Vol.  I.— 27* 


818  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

to  receive  the  inspiration  of  tlie  god,  and  answer  those  who 
came  to  consult  the  oracle.  This  cavern  was  in  a  semi- 
circular declivity,  on  the  south  side  of  Mount  Parnassus. 
The  Greeks  believed  it  to  be  the  centre  of  the  world. 
Here  was  built  a  temple  to  Apollo,  which  became  one  of 
the  most  splendid  monuments  of  man's  reverence  for  the 
supernatural.  It  contained  a  statue  of  the  god  in  pure 
gold.  From  all  surrounding  states  and  nations  people 
flocked  thither  to  consult  the  oracle.  Lawgivers  came  to 
ask  what  would  be  beneficial  for  their  people;  kings  sent 
ambassadors  to  inquire  what  would  be  the  result  of  pro- 
jected wars;  and  wealthy  individuals  sought  for  guidance 
in  every  important  transaction  of  life.  As  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  all  these  applicants  to  make  rich  presents, 
Delphi  was  adorned  with  an  inconceivable  number  of 
costly  treasures  and  beautiful  works  of  art.  When  Nero, 
in  his  wars,  plundered  the  temple,  he  carried  away  five 
hundred  brazen  statues  of  gods  and  heroes.  The  priestess 
was  called  Pythia.  She  was  required  to  dress  very  simply, 
and  be  strictly  temperate  and  pure  in  her  life.  At  first  it 
was  customary  to  choose  young  maidens,  but  the  sacredness 
of  their  office  proved  an  insufficient  protection  against  the 
passions  of  some  who  came  to  consult  them,  and  a  law  was 
passed  that  no  woman  under  fifty  years  old  should  be  ap- 
pointed. On  the  east  side  of  the  temple  flowed  a  clear, 
sweet  stream  from  Parnassus,  called  the  fountain  of  Cas- 
talia,  believed  to  impart  inspiration  to  all  who  drank  of  its 
waters.  Before  the  Pythia  approached  the  tripod,  she 
bathed  her  whole  body,  especially  her  hair,  in  this  sacred 
spring.  She  shook  a  laurel  tree  that  grew  near  it,  crowned 
herself  with  a  garland  from  it,  and  ate  some  of  the  leaves. 
As  soon  as  she  inhaled  the  vapour  from  the  cavern,  her 
countenanco  became  ])ale,  her  eyes  sparkled,  and  all  her 
limbs  trembled.  While  tlic  priest  held  her  over  it,  she 
foamed  at  the  mouth,  shrieked,  howled,  and  uttered  frantic 
exclamations.  These  were  supposed  to  be  the  voice  of  the 
god  sj)eaking  through  her,  and  priests  were  appointed  to 
write  them  down.     On  one  occasion  her  paroxysms  were 


GREECE   AND   llOMi:.  319 

SO  frightful  tliat  tliey  all  ran  away,  and  she  died,  after  lin- 
gering a  few  days  in  great  distress.  Sometimes  the  symp- 
toms were  more  mild,  and  her  words  more  coherent.  For 
a  long  time  oracles  were  uttered  in  poetry,  but  it  being 
observed  that  the  god  of  poetry  made  the  worst  possible 
verses,  they  were  afterward  delivered  in  prose.  It  was 
believed  that  Jupiter,  who  held  the  books  of  The  Fates, 
and  revealed  more  or  less  of  them  as  he  pleased,  had 
peculiarly  intrusted  Apollo  with  the  department  of  pro- 
phecy ;  therefore  his  oracles  were  numerous,  and  in  higher 
reputation  than  others.  The  one  in  the  temple  at  Delos 
was  remarkable  for  the  clearness  and  directness  of  its 
answers.  That  at  Delphi  was  the  most  celebrated,  and  the 
most  ancient,  being  founded  more  than  twelve  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  Its  predictions  were  con- 
sidered so  infallible,  that  it  became  a  proverb  to  say  '= 
"It  is  as  true  as  responses  from  the  tripod."  By  what 
rules  the  priests  were  guided  in  choosing  a  Pythia,  we  are 
not  informed.  They  probably  selected  nervous  and  im- 
pressible subjects.  That  some  were  better  adapted  to  the 
ofllice  than  others,  is  shown  by  the  concurrent  testimony 
that  this  oracle  sometimes  lost  its  prophetic  power,  and 
after  a  time  regained  it.  Plato  represents  Socrates  as 
saying:  "The  prophetess  at  Delphi,  and  the  priestess  in 
Dodona,  have,  when  insane,  produced  many  advantages, 
both  public  and  private,  to  the  Greeks;  but  when  they 
have  been  in  a  prudent  state,  they  have  been  the  cause  of 
very  trifling  benefits,  or  indeed  of  none  at  all." 

The  most  ancient  of  all  the  numerous  oracles  in  Greece 
was  that  of  Dodona,  where  oaks  were  said  to  utter  prophe- 
cies; a  rumor  probably  caused  b}^  the  voices  of  persons 
secreted  in  the  trees.  Being  a  high  point  of  land,  Deuca- 
lion here  saved  himself  from  the  general  deluge,  stated  to 
have  occurred  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  forty-eight 
years  before  Christ.  In  token  of  gratitude  he  there  erected 
a  building  to  Jupiter,  said  to  have  been  the  first  temple  in 
Greece.     The  oracles  were  delivered  by  a  ^Ji'iestess,  whom 


320  PROGllESS   OF   RELIGIOL^S   IDEAS. 

Herodotus  supposes  to  have  been  carried  away  from  a 
temple  in  Egypt. 

Oracles  were  generally  given  in  very  confused  and  unin- 
telligible language.  They  often  remained  unsolved  until 
a  long  time  after,  when  some  event  occurred,  which  was 
ingeniously  explained  to  have  fulfilled  them.  Sometimes 
they  were  so  worded  that  they  could  be  understood  one 
way  as  well  as  another.  Thus  when  Pyrrhus  inquired 
whether  he  should  be  victorious,  the  reply  was :  "  I  declare, 
son  of  ^acus,  you  the  Eomans  shall  conquer."  He  thought 
it  a  favourable  omen  ;  but  the  Romans  conquered  him,  and 
3^et  the  event  did  not  contradict  the  prediction.  Of  the 
true  and  clear  responses,  the  most  remarkable  on  record 
are  the  following.  Croesus,  wishing  to  ascertain  which 
oracle  was  most  deserving  of  confidence,  sent  messengers 
into  seven  different  states,  with  orders  that  on  the  same 
day  of  the  month  they  should  each  ask  the  chief  oracle  of 
the  place  what  Croesus  was  then  doing,  and  send  him  word 
what  answers  they  received.  In  order  to  be  employed  in 
a  manner  least  likely  to  be  conjectured,  he  cut  in  pieces  a 
tortoise  and  a  lamb,  and  boiled  them  together  in  a  covered 
vessel  of  bi'ass.  The  answers  were  all  unsatisfactory, 
except  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  The  Pytliia  re- 
plied : 

"I  count  tlie  saiul,  I  measure  out  the  sea; 
Tlie  silent  anil  the  dumb  are  heard  by  me. 
E'en  now  the  odours  to  my  sense  that  rise, 
A  tortoise  boiling  with  a  lamb  supplies, 
Where  brass  below  and  brass  above  it  lies." 

An  oracle  at  Butis  told  Cambyscs  he  would  die  in  Ec- 
batana.  Supposing  it  to  mean  a  great  city  of  that  name  in 
Media,  he  carefully  avoided  the  place.  Some  years  after, 
when  ho  was  suil'ering  from  a  wound,  he  dismounted  from 
liis  horse  to  rest  in  a  village  of  Assyria.  Feeling  that 
lie  must  die  there,  he  inquired  the  name  of  the  place, 
and  they  told  him  it  was  Ecbatana.  The  prophecy  \va» 
lull!!  led. 

JViests  took  advantage  of  the  general   faith  in  oracles, 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  32 1 

and  ullowed  no  one  to  consult  them  witliout  expensive  sac- 
rifices and  ricli  presents.  In  some  places,  applicants  slept 
in  the  temple,  and  priests  interpreted  what  the  gods  said  to 
them  in  dreams.  On  such  occasions,  they  used  a  pillow  of 
laurel  leaves;  for  that  was  universally  called  "the  pro- 
j)hetic  plant."  Prophets  always  carried  a  staff  of  laurel 
wood.  Sometimes  Sibylline  verses  were  written  on  scraps 
of  paper,  shaken  in  a  vessel,  and  taken  out  by  lot.  Some- 
times they  opened  the  poems  of  Ilcsiod,  or  Homer,  and 
ticcepted  as  a  prediction  the  first  verse  they  glanced  at. 
They  had  innumerable  omens.  When  a  person  sneezed, 
it  was  customary  to  say :  "  The  gods  bless  you  !"  A  sneeze 
on  the  left  hand  was  unlucky.  A  sneeze  on  Xenophon's 
right  hand,  while  he  was  making  a  speech,  was  thought  a 
sufficient  reason  why  he  should  command  the  army.  Cer- 
tain days  were  considered  so  unlucky,  that  Augustus  C?esar 
would  never  go  out  when  they  occurred,  or  consent  to  be- 
gin any  important  undertaking.  Priests  learned  in  the 
arts  of  divination  were  called  Augurs.  They  predicted 
future  events  from  the  course  of  the  lightning,  the  actions 
of  birds  and  bees,  and  the  appearance  of  the  entrails  in  ani- 
mals offered  for  sacrifice.  Birds,  flying  about  everywhere, 
were  supposed  to  have  universal  knowledge  of  the  affairs 
of  men  ;  hence  their  cries  and  manner  of  flight  were  con- 
sidered ominous.  This  idea  rendered  people  cautious  what 
they  said  before  a  bird ;  and  is,  perhaps,  the  origin  of  our 
saying:  "  A  bird  of  the  air  may  carry  it."  One  of  the  most 
important  offices  of  the  Augurs  was  to  select  a  fortunate 
day  for  battle.  There  was  always  an  altar  for  worship  in 
the  centre  of  the  camp,  and  a  coop  of  sacred  chickens.  If 
tlie  chickens  refused  to  eat,  it  was  a  bad  omen  ;  if  they  ate 
freely,  it  was  propitious.  Once  when  they  refused  food, 
Publius  Claudius  ordered  them  to  be  thrown  into  the 
w^ater ;  saying,  with  a  sneer:  "Let  them  drink,  since  they 
will  not  eat."  But  his  fleet  being  captured  soon  after,  he 
Lamented  his  rashness  with  many  tears ;  for  the  people  con- 
:sidered  his  impiety  the  cause  of  their  calamities.  When 
the  army  of  Marcus  Aureli  as  was  perishing  with  thirst,  the 


822  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

priests  were  summoned  to  utter  conjurations  and  perform 
ceremonies  to  procure  rain.  A  refreshing  shower,  which 
soon  followed,  was  considered  an  answer  to  their  prayers. 
The  augurs  were  consulted  both  on  public  and  private  occa- 
sions, and  their  counsels  had  great  influence  in  the  state. 
It  was  very  common  to  impute  national  calamities  to  some 
neglect  of  the  Auspices,  Other  priests  could  be  condemned 
for  offences,  but  no  augur  could  be  removed  from  office, 
though  convicted  of  the  most  flagrant  crimes.  The  great- 
est generals  and  statesmen  were  proud  of  belonging  to  their 
sacred  order.  Pomj^ey  and  Cicero  were  augurs ;  and  the 
latter  confesses  that  the  supreme  object  of  his  wishes  was 
attained  by  the  appointment. 

Numerous  miracles  are  recorded  in  the  annals  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  They  were  believed  by  many  intelligent  and 
learned  persons,  and  were  received  as  religious  truth  by 
the  populace.  Pausanias,  the  Roman  historian,  says  that 
in  the  temple  of  JEsculapius,  at  Epidaurus,  were  many  col- 
umns inscribed  with  the  names  of  men  and  women  cured 
by  the  god.  One  of  the  pillars  was  erected  in  commemo- 
ration of  Hippolytus,  who  liad  been  raised  from  the  dead. 
Strabo  says  the  temples  were  full  of  tablets  describing 
niii'aculous  cures.  One  of  these  tablets,  found  in  the  tem- 
ple of  ^sculapius,  on  the  island  of  the  Tiber,  at  Rome, 
gives  an  account  of  two  blind  men  restored  to  sight,  in  view 
of  a  multitude  of  })eople,  who  with  loud  acclamations  ac- 
knowledged the  power  of  the  god.  The  tenlples  of  that 
deity  were  always  thronged  with  the  diseased,  imploring 
assistance,  and  the  cured  presenting  ollerings.  It  was  very 
common  to  remain  lying  prostrate  in  the  temple  all  night, 
expecting  medicines  to  bo  prescribed  in  dreams.  It  was 
believed  that  J[!]scula})ius  himself  sometimes  appeared  and 
conversed  with  those  who  devoutly  sought  his  aid.  Cicero 
says:  "Time  wears  away  opinions  Ibundotl  on  Actions,  but 
confirms  the  dictates  of  nature.  AVhence  it  is,  both  among 
us  and  other  nations,  that  sacred  institutions  and  divine 
woi'ship  of  the  gods  have  been  increased  and  refined,  from 
time  to  time.     This  is  not  to  be  imputed  to  chance,  or  folly 


GREECE   AND   HOME.  323 

but  to  the  frequent  appearance  of  the  gods  themselves. 
Their  voices  have  been  often  heard,  and  they  have  appeared 
in  forms  so  visible,  that  he  who  doubts  it  must  be  hardened 
in  stupidity  or  impiety."  Diouysius  of  Ilalicarnassus,  one 
of  the  most  accurate  historians  of  antiquity,  says:  "  In  the 
war  with  the  Latins,  Castor  and  Pollux  appeared  visibly 
on  white  horses,  and  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Komans,  who 
by  their  assistance  gained  a  complete  victory.  As  a  per- 
petual memorial  of  it,  a  temple  was  erected,  and  a  yearly 
festival  instituted  in  honour  of  those  deities,"  The  emperor 
Julian  declared  that  he  had  familiar  intercourse  with  divine 
beings.  They  woke  him  from  slumber,  by  touching  his 
hand  or  his  hair,  and  he  knew  them  so  well,  that  he  could 
instantly  distinguish  their  voices  and  their  forms,  nomer 
has  recorded  that  the  horse  of  Achilles  spoke  to  him,  pro- 
fessed to  see  Apollo,  and  told  his  master  that  he  would 
soon  be  killed. 

In  the  early  rude  times  of  Greece,  they  had  neither  statuea 
nor  temples,  but  only  upright  stones,  or  wooden  blocks,  with 
the  name  of  some  deity  inscribed  thereon.  To  these  were 
added  simple  altars  of  turf  or  stone,  over  which  small  chap- 
els were  lirst  erected,  and  afterwards,  temples.  Mountains, 
groves,  and  grottoes,  were  all  favourite  places  of  worship. 
In  a  dark  rocky  ravine,  overshadowed  by  gloomy  groves 
and  frowning  crags,  was  a  deep  subterranean  recess,  called 
the  cave  of  Trophonius.  Oracles  were  uttered  there, 
whence  worshippers  always  returned  very  pale  and  dejected; 
doubtless  owing  to  the  chemical  properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere. On  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Ilymettus  is  a 
grotto  hung  with  stalactites.  Engraved  on  a  rock  at  the 
entrance,  is  an  inscription  in  verse,  announcing  that  Arche- 
demus,  a  native  of  Thessaly,  formed  this  cave  by  counsel 
of  the  Nymphs.  In  the  interior,  his  figure  may  still  be 
seen  rudely  sculptured  on  the  rock,  in  his  shepherd's  frock, 
with  a  hammer  and  chisel  in  his  hand.  Various  inscrip- 
tions are  scattered  about,  one  of  which  speaks  of  a  garden 
planted  there  in  honour  of  the  Nymphs.  In  ancient  times, 
when  the  poetic  faith  of  Greece  was  living  in  the  souls  of 


824  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

men,  this  place  was  filled  with  images  of  sylvan  deities, 
and  the-  walls  covered  with  votive  ofierings,  shepherds 
pipes  and  reeds,  basins  of  stone,  and  wooden  cups  carved 
with  animals  and  flowers.  Here  the  peasants  brought  ob- 
lations of  their  first  flowers,  grapes,  and  sheaves  of  grain. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  the  grotto  where  Plato,  when  a  young 
child,  was  led  by  his  parents  with  ofterings  to  Pan,  tlje 
Nymphs,  and  the  Pastoral  Apollo,  to  Avhom  the  place  was 
consecrated.  Wliile  they  sacrificed,  the  boy  slept  on  the 
grass,  and  bees  left  honey  on  his  mouth,  which  was  consid- 
ered a  presage  of  his  future  eloquence. 

All  high  places  were  sacred  to  some  deity.  Mount  Hel- 
icon, covered  with  fresh  rills  and  flowery  glades,  was  con- 
secrated to  the  Muses,  whose  graceful  statues  stood  in  the 
shady  recesses  of  its  many  groves.  There  welled  the  sacred 
fount  of  Aganippe,  round  which  they  danced,  and  the 
clear  spring  of  IIi})pocrene,  in  which  they  bathed.  Con- 
secrated groves  abounded  everywhere,  with  marble  statues 
of  the  gods  gleaming  among  their  foliage.  They  were  sup- 
posed to  be  a  favourite  resort  for  Dryads,  Fauns,  Satyrs, 
and  other  sylvan  deities,  often  seen  dancing  under  the 
trees;  a  poetic  way  of  accounting  for  the  flickering  play 
of  sunshine  and  shadow.  Religious  ceremonies  were  often 
solemnized  in  groves,  which  on  such  occasions  were  hung 
with  so  many  garlands,  bouquets,  and  various  offerings  to 
the  gods,  that  light  was  almost  excluded. 

The  difference  between  Egyptian  and  Grecian  character 
was  strongly  marked  on  their  temjiles  and  statues.  In- 
stead of  huge  piles  of  granite,  hewn  into  heavy  forms,  and 
enveloped  in  subterranean  gloom,  temples  of  pure  white 
marble  stood  in  Doric  majesty  on  the  summit  of  Grecian 
liills,  overlooking  a  broad  expanse  of  waters;  or  in  the 
bosom  of  sunny  valleys  gracefully  rose  the  slender  cokunns 
of  Ionian  architecture.  No  law  of  limitation  confined  the 
Grecian  artist  to  stilf  attitudes  and  monotonous  repose. 
Genius,  left  free  to  express  itself,  proved  its  own  divinity 
in  the  creation  of  divine  forms.  It  had  no  need  to  repre- 
sent omnipotence  by  the  clumsy  contrivance  of  many  heads 


GREECE   AXD   ROME.  825 

and  arms.  It  put  power  in  the  statue;  made  it  breatlie 
from  the  godlike  countenance,  and  bound  in  graceful  mo- 
tions. Of  all  their  conceptions  none  was  more  beautiful 
than  their  image  of  Apollo,  the  Intellectual  Spirit  of  the 
Sun,  eagerly  and  gracefully  springing  forward,  in  the  full 
vigour  of  immortal  youth,  leading  the  planets  through  the 
mazes  of  their  heavenly  dance  to  the  music  of  his  golden 
lyre.  No  wonder  that  the  untutored  minds  of  Greece, 
gazing  reverently  on  those  statues,  should  find  it  easy  to 
believe  that  Celestial  Spirits,  descended  from  the  stars, 
dwelt  therein,  and  irradiated  the  divine  forms  with  their 
own  immortal  life. 

The  material  employed  was  worthy  of  the  beautiful  ideal 
embodied.  Greece  was  rich  in  quarries  of  finest  marble, 
susceptible  of  exquisite  polish.  Ivory  and  gold  were  often 
intermixed,  and  sometimes  statues  were  made  of  pure  gold, 
adorned  with  precious  gems.  The  images  of  pastoral  dei- 
ties were  generally  cut  from  citron,  olive,  ebony,  and  other 
durable  kinds  of  wood. 

It  w\as  a  common  opinion  that  some  of  the  gods  peculiarly 
delighted  in  mountains,  others  in  forests,  valleys,  fields,  or 
rivers ;  and  it  was  customary  to  build  temples  in  places 
supposed  to  be  most  agreeable  to  the  deities  who  Avere  to 
inhabit  them.  The  people  considered  them  a  blessing 
wherever  they  stood,  and  thought  they  owed  health  and 
abundant  harvests  to  their  protecting  influence.  In  cities, 
they  built  temples  near  common  houses,  but  elsewhere  they 
sought  for  the  loveliest  and  most  secluded  places,  and  gen- 
erally surrounded  them  with  stately  groves.  The  ground 
was  previously  consecrated  with  many  prayers  and  cere- 
monies, and  sprinkled  with  holy  water.  Temples  always 
faced  the  east,  to  receive  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun. 
They  contained  an  outer  court  for  the  public,  and  an  inner 
sanctuary  for  the  priests,  called  the  Adytum.  Near  the 
entrance  was  a  large  vessel  of  stone  or  brass,  filled  with 
water,  made  holy  by  plunging  into  it  a  burning  torch  from 
the  altar.  All  who  were  admitted  to  the  sacrifices  were 
sprinkled  with  this  water,  and  none  but  the  unpolluted 
Vol.  I.— 28 


326  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS 

were  allowed  to  pass  beyond  it.  In  the  centre  of  the  build- 
ing stood  the  statue  of  the  god  on  a  pedestal  raised  above 
the  altar  and  enclosed  by  a  railing.  On  festival  occasions, 
the  people  brought  laurel,  olive,  or  ivy,  to  decorate  the 
pillars  and  walls.  Before  they  entered,  they  always  washed 
their  hands  as  a  type  of  purification  from  sin.  A  story  is 
told  of  a  man  who  was  struck  dead  by  a  thunderbolt  be- 
cause he  omitted  this  ceremony  when  entering  a  temple  of 
Jupiter.  Sometimes  they  crawled  up  the  steps  on  their 
knees,  and  bowing  their  heads  to  the  ground,  kissed  the 
threshold.  Alvvaj's  when  they  passed  one  of  these  sacred 
edifices  they  kissed  their  right  hand  to  it,  in  token  of 
veneration.  All  classes,  including  foreigners  and  slaves, 
were  free  to  enter,  either  from  curiosity  or  devotion ;  but 
it  was  ordained  that  no  unclean  action  should  be  committed 
within  the  consecrated  precincts.  There  was  a  law  that  no 
person  should  be  forced  away  from  the  altars  or  statues,  or 
be  subject  to  any  violence  there;  and  it  was  believed  that 
such  an  action  would  bring  down  certain  vengeance  from 
the  gods.  The  princess  Laodamia  fled  to  Diana's  altar  for 
protection,  during  a  sedition  of  the  people,  and  was  killed 
in  the  tumult.  A  terrible  famine  and  civil  wars  followed, 
which  were  all  attributed  to  this  circumstance.  The  insti- 
tution was  intended  to  protect  abused  slaves  and  persecuted 
debtors;  but  in  process  of  time  all  sorts  of  knaves  and 
criminals  took  refuge  in  the  temples,  and  no  authority 
could  expel  them.  The  evil  finally  became  so  great,  that 
only  one  or  two  were  allowed  to  be  places  of  protection 
for  offenders,  and  those  under  certain  regulations. 

Each  deity  had  consecrated  plants  and  animals,  often  rep- 
resented near  them  in  the  sculptures  and  paintings.  The 
oak  and  eagle  were  sacred  to  Jupiter,  the  owl  and  olive  to 
Minerva,  the  swan  and  laurel  to  Apollo.  Serpents  were 
often  introduced  in  connection  with  Apolloand  -^sculapius; 
they  were  twined  round  the  rod  of  Mercury,  and  some- 
times lay  at  the  foot  of  Minerva's  spear.  A  large  serpent 
was  kept  in  the  citadel  at  Athens,  to  which  they  every 
month  offered  cakes  of  honey.     The  pomegranate,  which 


GREECE    AND    ROME.  827 

Ilindoo  Siva  carries  as  a  symbol  of  his  rcprodueinu-  ptnver, 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  dead  on  Grecian  monu- 
ments, as  a  sign  that  they  would  live  again.  A  butterfly 
emerging  from  its  chrysalis  is  often  represented  on  smdi 
monuments,  as  a  type  of'transmigration,  which  they  called 
metempsychosis,  or  change  of  soul. 

Among  the  innumerable  temples  of  Greece,  the  most 
beautiful  was  the  Parthenon,  meaning  the  Temple  of  the 
Virgin  Goddess.  It  was  a  magnificent  Doric  edifice,  dedi- 
cated  to  Minerva,  the  presiding  deity  of  Athens.  It  was 
surrounded  by  three  rows  of  stately  columns  of  pure 
Pentelic  marble,  and,  standing  on  the  highest  eminence  in 
the  city,  it  was  seen  from  afar  relieved  against  the  clear 
blue  sky.  The  eastern  front  was  covered  with  figures 
sculptured  in  bold  relief,  representing  Jupiter  in  the  centre, 
and  a  procession  of  the  gods  following  the  car  of  Minerva 
to  his  throne.  On  either  side  was  represented  the  Pana- 
thenaic  pomp  of  Athenian  citizens  carrying  offerings  in 
solemn  procession  to  the  altar  of  their  patron  goddess. 
The  figures  were  relieved  by  a  groundwork  of  painting  in 
metallic  colours ;  rich  purple,  bright  azure,  glowing  red, 
and  brilliant  sea-green.  Wreaths  of  honeysuckle  and  fes- 
toons of  gold  adorned  the  cornice.  "  This  profusion  of 
vivid  colours  threw  around  the  fabric  a  joyful  and  festive 
beauty,  harmonizing  admirably  with  the  brightness  and 
transparency  of  the  atmosphere  which  encircled  it."  All 
the  ornaments,  within  and  without,  were  wrought  with  the 
exquisite  finish  of  a  cameo.  Sculptured  groups  of  deities 
and  demi-gods,  the  most  beautiful  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
abounded  everywhere.  In  the  centre  of  the  temple  stood 
the  celebrated  colossal  statue  of  Minerva  in  full  armour, 
by  Phidias.  It  was  sixty  feet  high,  made  of  ivory  arid 
gold.  The  amount  of  six  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gold 
was  taken  from  the  public  treasury  for  its  completion.  The 
offerings  in  this  temple  were  of  immense  value.  Statues 
without  number,  superb  paintings,  golden  vases,  golden 
shields,  splendid  armour  taken  in  war,  h-res  of  ivory  inlaid 
with  gold,  golden  wreaths  of  victory,  golden  mediils  and 


828  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

rings.  It  was  sixteen  3^ears  from  the  commencement  to  tlie 
completion  of  this  superb  structure.  Every  Athenian  was 
eager  to  have  some  share  in  the  glorious  work.  The 
\\omen  embroidered  rich  veils  for  the  statues,  the  wealthy 
gave  their  gold,  the  artists  their  genius,  the  labourers  their 
strength.  Even  the  animals-  which  dragged  the  marble 
from  the  quarry  were  honoured  for  the  service,  and  a  law 
was  passed  that  the  best  pastures  around  the  city  should 
thenceforth  be  reserved  for  them. 

In  Athens  also  was  a  magnificent  temple  to  Jupiter, 
half  a  mile  in  circuit.  It  was  supported  by  one  hundred 
and  twenty  marble  columns,  richly  sculptured,  sixty  feet 
high,  and  six  in  diameter. 

The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  was  one  of  the  most 
superb  edifices  ever  dedicated  to  any  form  of  worship.  It 
was  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  long  and  two  hundred 
broad,  supported  by  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  marble 
columns,  lofty  and  beautiful.  The  interior  was  ornamented 
with  innumerable  statues  and  paintings  from  the  best 
Grecian  masters,  and  the  amount  of  wealth  in  votive  offer- 
ings could  hardly  be  calculated.  All  the  nations  of  Asia 
Minor  contributed  to  its  erection,  and  were  employed  two 
hundred  and  twenty  years  in  its  completion.  Diana  was 
there  worshipped  as  the  Goddess  of  Fruitful  Nature,  as  Isis 
was  in  Egypt.  The  amulets  and  talismans  conseci'ated  by 
the  priests  were  in  great  demand. 

In  the  territory  of  Elis  was  a  temple  containing  a  colossal 
statue  of  Oljmipian  Jupiter,  by  Phidias.  It  was  sixty  feet 
high,  and  reckoned  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It 
was  formed  of  ivory,  crowned  with  a  golden  wreath,  and 
adorned  with  a  mantle  of  beaten  gold,  which  fell  in  ample 
Iblds  from  the  waist  to  the  feet.  In  his  right  hand  was  a 
statue  of  the  Goddess  of  Victory,  likewise  made  of  ivory 
and  gold.  The  left  hand  held  a  sceptre  richly  adorned, 
and  surmounted  by  a  golden  eagle.  The  expression  of 
the  countenance  was  serene,  benevolent,  and  godlike  in  its 
majesty. 

One  of  the  most  renowned  edifices  consecrated  to  this 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  329 

form  of  worship,  was  built  by  the  Muccdoiiiun  kings  in 
Syria.  It  was  called  Apollo  Daphiueus,  because  it  was 
intended  to  commemorate  7\pollo's  love  for  the  beautiful 
nymph  Daphne,  who,  it  is  said,  was  here  changed  into  a 
tree  of  laurel.  The  capacious  sanctuary  was  almost  filled 
by  a  colossal  statue  of  the  god,  wrought  with  the  most 
])erfect  skill  of  Grecian  art,  and  enriched  with  gold  and 
gems.  He  was  slightly  bending  forward,  to  pour  a  liba- 
tion on  the  earth,  from  a  golden  cup.  The  temple  was 
embosomed  in  thick,  impenetrable  groves  of  laurel  and 
cypress,  which  reached  as  far  as  a  circumference  of  ten 
miles,  and  "suffered  not  the  Sun  to  kiss  their  mother 
Earth."  Within  the  enclosures  were  gardens  filled  with 
flowers,  whose  fragrance  floated  through  the  balmy  air, 
mingled  with  soft  strains  of  seducing  music.  Many  streams 
of  pure  water  flowed  from  the  hills;  one  of  them  was  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  the  same  source  as  the  Castalian 
Spring  at  Delphos,  and  to  be  endowed  with  the  same  pro- 
phetic power.  The  emperor  Adrian  is  said  to  have  read 
the  history  of  his  future  fortunes  on  a  leaf  dipped  in  these 
waters.  The  grounds  were  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
successive  emperors,  and  every  generation  added  some- 
thing to  the  splendour  of  the  temple.  For  many  centuries 
it  was  visited  by  crowds  of  worshippers,  both  natives  and 
foreigners.  But  soldiers  and  philosophers,  who  dreaded  to 
lose  their  reputation  by  becoming  effeminate,  generally 
avoided  those  cool  and  shady  groves,  it  being  considered 
impossible  for  human  nature  to  resist  the  voluptuous  and 
seductive  influences  of  a  place  so  expressly  consecrated  to 
love. 

In  Athens  was  a  large  edifice  called  the  Pantheon,  be- 
cause it  contained  statues  of  all  the  gods.  One  on  the 
same  model,  and  with  the  same  name,  was  afterward  built 
at  Eome.  That  city  alone  was  said  to  contain  a  thousand 
temples.  Every  part  of  Greece  abounded  with  monuments 
of  religious  reverence.  Gracefully  ornamented,  or  severely 
simple  in  their  grandeur,  they  crowned  every  city,  gleamed 
through  the  foliage  of  every  valley,  and  often  on  the 
Vol.  I.— 28* 


330  PROGRESS    OF   REIJGIOUS   IDEAS. 

summit  of  solitary  hills   refreslied   the  traveller  with  a 
vision  of  unexpected  beauty. 

The  spirit  of  freedom,  conspicuous  in  poetry  and  the 
arts,  manifested  itself  in  all  forms  of  thought.  Theories 
of  God  and  the  soul  escaped  from  the  locks  and  kej's  of 
priests  into  the  minds  of  philosophers,  who  lectured  upon 
them  openly,  excited  other  minds  to  investigation,  and  led 
the  way  to  general  discussion.  The  world  was  beginning 
to  pass  out  of  the  age  of  childhood,  which  receives  unques- 
tioning all  it  is  taught.  It  was  entering  the  age  of  youthful, 
inquiring  intellect,  poetic,  erratic,  allured  by  castles  in  the 
air,  but  eager,  buoyant,  and  free.  These  teachers  of  the 
people,  not  included  in  the  priesthood,  differed  much  in 
doctrines  and  character.  The  earliest  of  them  taught  the 
old  Braminical  idea  that  God  and  Nature  were  eternally 
one;  and  that  by  an  inherent  necessity,  without  any  ex- 
ertion of  the  will,  material  forms  must  at  certain  times  be 
evolved  by  energy  of  the  Divine  Spirit  indwelling  in  Na- 
ture, like  the  soul  in  the  human  body.  Others,  like  tue 
Hindoo  rationalists,  maintained  that  God  and  Nature  were 
eternally  two  distinct  principles,  differing  entirely  in 
essence,  and  forever  opposed  to  each  other.  Some  believed 
there  was  a  Central  Soul  diflPased  throughout  the  universe, 
the  original  cause  of  all  things.  Others  denied  any  Pri- 
mary Intelligence,  and  said  Nature  existed  b}'  an  accidental 
collision  and  combination  of  atoms.  Some  said  the  Uni- 
verse had  always  existed,  and  would  forever  r>^main  as  it 
was.  Others  believed  that  deluges  and  conflagrations  de- 
stroyed the  earth  at  long  intervals,  returning  as  regularly 
as  summer  and  winter;  that  all  the  forms  of  nature  were 
renewed  by  energy  of  the  indwelling  Divine  Soul,  and  so 
would  be  dissolved  and  renewed  forever;  that  at  every 
renovation  the  first  race  of  men  would  be  innocent  and 
liaj)py,  and  gradually  degenerate  more  and  more  to  the 
end.  Some  pliiloso})hers  were  absorbed  in  seientilic  studies 
and  abstract  nietapliysical  questions.  Others  renounced 
all  science  and  speculative  philosophy  as  useless  and 
troublesome,   and    attended    solely   to    the   inculcation   of 


GREECE    AND   ROME,  ^31 

moral  habits  and  proper  manners.  Some  held  that  pleas- 
ure was  the  object  of  existence,  and  wisdom  valuable  only 
because  it  taught  the  means  of  rational  enjoyment.  Others 
relied  entirely  on  the  sufliciency  of  virtue  to  happiness, 
preached  stoical  submission  to  irresistible  fate,  said  pain 
was  no  evil,  and  suicide,  under  some  circumstances,  a 
noble  action.  Some  delighted  in  harmonious  sounds, 
graceful  forms,  and  rich  clothing,  believing  that  cultivated 
taste  and  love  of  beauty  helped  to  elevate  the  moral 
character.  Others  held  all  external  advantages  in  con- 
tempt, practised  rigid  abstinence,  wore  coarse  clothing,  and 
carried  a  wallet  to  beg  for  daily  bread.  One  class  j)rided 
themselves  on  proving  that  nothing  could  be  proved  ;  that 
there  was  no  such  thing  as  good  or  evil,  truth  or  falsehood, 
but  everything  was  a  matter  of  opinion. 

Enlightened  minds  understood  the  numerous  deities  sym- 
bolically, and  regarded  them  merely  as  names  of  various 
eftects  produced  by  One  Great  Cause.  Employed  in  upper 
ether,  it  was  Jupiter ;  in  the  lower  atmosphere,  Juno ;  in 
the  sciences,  Minerva;  in  the  sun,  Apollo;  in  the  sea,  Nep- 
tune. That  which  to  us  appears  absurd  in  their  mytholo- 
gical legends,  they  explained  satisfactorily  to  themselves, 
by  regarding  them  as  allegories;  a  method  universally  em- 
ployed by  the  human  intellect  when  devoutly  inclined  to 
discover  sacred  meaning  in  incomprehensible  traditions. 
Philosophers  of  all  opinions  conformed  more  or  less  to 
])opular  observances ;  partly  from  the  hold  which  the  re- 
ligion of  one's  age  and  country  generally  keeps  upon  the 
soul,  and  partly  from  motives  of  personal  safety ;  for  the 
priests,  who  lived  by  offering  prayers  and  sacrifices  for  the 
])eople,  were  naturally  very  jealous  of  any  teaching  that 
lessened  the  importance  of  prescribed  ceremonies.  That 
some  of  the  philosophers  looked  very  sceptically  upon  their 
religious  rites,  may  be  readily  conjectured.  When  Crates 
asked  Stilpo  whether  he  thought  the  gods  took  pleasure  in 
the  honours  paid  to  them  by  mortals,  he  replied :  "  You 
fool,  do  not  question  me  upon  such  subjects  in  the  public 
streets,  but  when  we  are  alone,"     The  friends  of  DiaLroras 


832  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

showed  him  many  votive  tablets  suspended  in  tlie  temj)lcs 
by  those  who  had  escaped  dangerous  storms  at  sea.  He 
replied  :  "  I  see  the  offerings  of  those  who  were  saved,  but 
where  is  the  record  of  those  who  were  wrecked,  notwith- 
standing their  supplications  to  the  deities  ?"  Protagoras  be- 
gan a  treatise  with  these  words:  "Concerning  the  gods,  I 
am  unable  to  arrive  at  any  knowledge  whether  the)^  exist 
or  not;  for  there  are  many  impediments  to  our  knowledge ; 
especially  tJie  shortness  and  uncertainty  of  human  life." 
The  Athenians  considered  this  sentiment  so  impious,  that 
they  banished  the  writer,  and  ordered  his  books  to  be 
burned  in  the  market-place. 

The  celebrity  of  Egypt  drew  thither  the  inquiring  minds 
of  Greece,  both  in  her  ancient  and  modern  times.  In  later 
ages,  they  came  directly  in  contact  with  Oriental  philoso- 
phers and  devotees.  Alexander  the  Great,  in  his  Asiatic 
expedition,  was  attended  by  Grecian  philosophers,  some  of 
whom  he  sent  to  hold  conferences  with  the  wise  men  of  the 
East,  particularly  the  Persian  Magi,  and  the  Bramins  of 
India.  The  continual  communication  between  India  and 
Egypt  by  commerce,  through  the  city  of  Alexandria, 
tended  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  East  among  the  Greeks. 
Their  later  writers  mention  East  Indian  and  Ethiopian  de- 
votees, whom  they  describe  as  Gymnosophists,  which 
means  naked  philosophers.  They  speak  of  them  as  divided 
into  two  sects,  Brahmans  and  Sarmans,  both  of  whom 
refrained  from  animal  food,  practised  great  austerities, 
and  sought  to  unite  themselves  with  Deity  by  constant 
meditation  and  complete  subjugation  of  the  senses.  One 
of  them  wandered  as  fur  as  Athens,  where  he  voluntarily 
burned  liimself  to  death,  to  purify  his  soul  from  all  con- 
nection with  matter.  Another  did  the  same  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Alexander's  army.  Being  asked  by  the  emperor 
whether  he  wished  to  say  anything  before  he  died,  he  re- 
plied :  "  1  shall  see  you  again  shortly."  This  answer  made 
a  great  impiossion,  for  it  was  generally  believed  that 
at  the  approach  of   death   the  soul  could  converse  with 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  666 

Spirits,  and  was  gifted  with  propliecj  ;  a  belief  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  Alexander  died  soon  after. 

The  earliest  of  the  Grecian  tcaehers  of  whom  we  have 
any  record  is  Orpheus.  The  general  testimony  is,  that  he 
was  a  native  of  Thrace,  who,  some  twelve  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  founded  a  colony  in  Greece,  and  spent  most 
of  his  life  there.  Being  well  acc^uainted  with  the  religious 
tenets  and  ceremonies  of  his  own  country,  he  travelled  into 
Egypt,  where  he  obtained  some  knowledge  of  their  religious 
mysteries,  and  became  skilful  in  music,  poetry,  philosoph}^, 
astrology,  and  medicine.  Thus  accomplished,  he  returned 
to  the  Greeks,  who  were  at  that  time  in  such  a  rude  con- 
dition, that  any  man  of  modei'ate  attainments  would  have 
seemed  a  prodigy.  Accordingly,  he  became  as  famous 
among  them  as  was  Hermes  among  the  Egyptians.  It  was 
said  his  music  allured  birds,  tamed  wild  beasts,  calmed 
whirlwinds,  and  drew  rocks  and  trees  after  him.  When 
liis  wife  Eurydice  died,  he  descended  to  Tartarus,  charmed 
by  his  music  the  tliree-headed  dog  tluit  guarded  its  gates, 
melted  the  heart  of  grim  Pluto,  and  obtained  leave  to  have 
his  beloved  wife  follow  him  back  to  earth,  provided  he 
did  not  look  behind  him  till  he  arrived  in  upper  air;  but, 
in  his  eagerness  to  see  Eurydice,  he  looked  too  soon,  and 
she  disappeared  for  ever.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this 
merely  signified  his  great  skill  in  medicine,  whereby  he 
rescued  his  wife  from  dangerous  illness,  and  afterwai-<l  lost 
her  by  a  relapse.  lie  brought  from  Egypt  the  (h^ctrine 
that  stars  were  animatetl  by  Spirits,  and  the  world  hatched 
from  a  mundane  egg  by  rays  of  the  sun.  He  taught  that 
there  was  One  invisible  God,  who  contained  within  himself 
the  germ  of  all  things,  and  was  alternatel}^  active  and  pas- 
sive. In  his  active  state,  successive  grades  of  beings  ema- 
nated from  him,  by  virtue  of  an  inherent  necessity;  all 
partook  of  his  divine  nature  in  dift'erent  degrees,  and  all 
would  return  to  him  after  progressive  purifications.  The 
universe  would  be  destroyed  by  fire,  and  renewed.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught  the  Greeks  that  the 
soul  lived  after  death,  and  would  suffer  or  be  rewarded  ac 


8oi  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

cording  to  deeds  done  in  the  body.  It  is  recorded  that  he 
introduced  a  triform  image  of  Deity.  It  was  a  Serpent, 
with  the  head  of  a  Lion,  the  head  of  a  Bull,  and  in  the 
centre  the  head  of  a  majestic  Man,  with  golden  wings  upon 
its  shoulders. 

The  following  are  among  the  recorded  maxims  of  Or- 
pheus: "There  is  One  Unknown  Being,  prior  to  all  beings, 
and  exalted  above  all.  He  is  the  author  of  all  things,  even 
of  the  ethereal  sphere,  and  of  all  things  below  it.  He  is 
Life,  Counsel,  and  Light,  which  three  names  all  signify  One 
Power,  the  same  that  drew  all  things  visible  and  invisible 
out  of  nothing.  We  will  sing  that  eternal,  wise,  and  all- 
perfect  Love,  which  reduced  the  chaos  into  order." 

"The  empyrean,  the  deep  Tartarus,  the  earth,  the  ocean, 
the  immortal  gods  and  goddesses,  all  that  is,  all  that  has 
been,  and  all  that  will  be,  was  originally  contained  in  the 
fruitful  bosom  of  Jupiter.  He  is  the  first  and  the  last,  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  All  beings  derive  their  origin 
from  him.  He  is  the  Primeval  Father,  the  immortal  vir- 
gin, the  life,  the  cause,  the  energy  of  all  things.  There  is 
One  only  Power,  One  only  Lord,  One  Universal  King." 

"Souls  are  in  this  world  as  a  punishment  for  sins  com- 
mitted in  a  pre-existent  state.  The  body  is  a  prison, 
wherein  the  soul  is  ke[)t  till  its  faults  are  expiated." 

The  next  celebrated  teachers  were  the  Seven  Wise  Men 
of  Greece  ;  among  whom  the  most  conspicuous  was  Thales, 
about  six  hundred  years  before  Christ.  According  to  the 
general  custom,  he  went  to  Egypt  in  search  of  wisdom, 
and  is  said  to  have  spent  several  years  in  intercourse  with 
the  learned  priests.  He  seems  to  have  carried  knowledge 
with  him,  for  he  taught  them  how  to  measure  the  lieight 
of  the  pyramids  by  their  shadow  at  noon  ;  a  process  pre- 
viously uidvuown  to  their  mathematicians.  After  his  re- 
turn, he  foretold  a  celebrated  eclipse,  which  happened  as 
predicted.  IW  astronomical  calculations,  he  likewise  fore- 
saw tliat  a  certain  year  would  be  uncommonly  j)roductivc^ 
and  he  bought  up  all  the  olives  in  the  neighbourhood  before 
their  season.      The  crops  proved  very  abundant,  and  he 


GREECE    AND    HOME,  S35 

inadc  large  profits;  but  he  assembled  the  neiirhboui-ing 
traders  and  voluntarily  divided  with  them.  The  (bllowing 
are  recorded  among  his  sayings  : 

"The  most  ancient  of  all  things  is  God,  for  he  is  un- 
created." 

"  The  universe  is  the  beautiful  work  of  God." 

"Be  cai'eful  not  to  do  that  yourself,  which  you  would 
blame  in  anotlier." 

"True  happiness  consists  in  perfect  health,  a  moderate 
fortune,  and  a  life  free  from  effeminacy  and  ignorance." 

"  In  misfortune  it  may  be  some  consolation  to  learn  that 
our  tormentors  are  as  unhappy  as  ourselves;"  a  maxim  in 
which  he  certainly  did  not  rise  above  the  level  of  his  age. 
He  maintained  that  death  does  not  differ  from  life  ;  that  one 
is  the  same  as  the  other.  Being  asked  if  a  man  could  con- 
ceal evil  actions  from  the  gods,  he  replied  :  "  How  can  ac- 
tions be  concealed,  when  even  our  most  secret  thoughts  are 
known  to  them  ?" 

Pittacus,  another  of  the  wise  men,  said  :  "  Do  not  that 
to  your  neighbour  '^'hich  you  would  take  ill  from  him." 

"  Speak  evil  of  no  one ;  not  even  of  your  enemies." 

Bias  said:  "  If  you  are  handsome,  do  handsome  things  ; 
if  deformed,  supply  the  defects  of  nature  by  your  virtues." 

"  Whatever  good  you  do,  ascribe  it  to  the  gods." 

Pythagoras,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  ancients, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  five  hundred  and 
eighty-six  years  before  Christ.  There  are  many  stories  of 
his  having  visited  wise  men  of  different  countries,  but  some 
of  them  are  positively  contradicted  by  dates.  One  fact,  as 
reliable  as  anything  we  can  learn  from  ancient  history,  is 
that  he  went  into  Eg3'pt,  carrying  an  introduction  from  the 
king  of  Samos  to  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  a  great 
patron  of  learned  men,  and  particularly  partial  to  Grecians. 
Amasis  requested  the  priests  of  Ileliopolis  to  instruct  him 
in  the  mysteries,  but  their  aversion  to  admit  a  foreigner 
was  so  strong,  that  they  evaded  the  royal  recommendation 
by  advising  him  to  go  to  the  college  at  Memphis,  because 
it  was  of  greater  antiquit3^     When  he  arrived  there,  the 


336  PROGRESS   OF   RELCGIOUS   IDEAS. 

same  pretext  was  used  to  dismiss  him  to  Thebes.  The 
Theban  priests,  unwilling  to  refuse  the  express  wish  of 
their  king,  and  yet  reluctant  to  grant  it,  ordained  such 
troublesome  and  severe  ceremonies  of  admission  as  they 
thought  would  discourage  the  importunate  stranger.  But 
so  great  was  his  eagerness  for  knowledge,  that  he  patiently 
endured  all  they  required,  though  he  nearly  lost  his  life  in 
the  process.  He  is  said  to  have  passed  twenty-two  years 
in  Eg3'pt,  during  which  he  became  familiar  with  their 
most  learned  priests,  and  perfect  master  of  their  three 
styles  of  writing,  the  common,  the  hieroglyphic,  and  the 
sacerdotal.  He  returned  to  his  own  country  at  the  age  of 
forty,  and  soon  after  established  a  school  of  philosophy  in 
that  part  of  Italy  called  Magna  Grecia,  on  account  of  the 
number  of  Grecians  settled  there.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
beautiful  and  majestic  beyond  all  the  men  of  his  time.  He 
used  to  wear  a  long  white  robe,  and  a  flowing  beard  ;  some 
say,  a  golden  crown  on  his  head.  He  preserved  great 
gravity  and  dignity  of  demeanour,  and  had  such  command 
of  himself  that  it  is  said  his  countenance  was  never  seen 
to  express  grief,  jo}^,  or  anger.  He  confined  himself  to 
frugal  vegetable  diet,  and  rejected  pulse  and  beans.  He 
was  much  influenced  by  music,  and  often  sang  hymns  from 
Hesiod,  Homer,  and  Thales,  to  preserve  the  tranquillity 
of  his  mind.  He  was  opposed  to  the  sacrifice  of  animals, 
and  worshipped  at  an  altar  which  had  never  been  polluted 
with  blood.  Seeing  a  large  draught  of  fishes  in  a  net,  he 
is  reported  to  have  purchased  them,  and  put  them  back 
into  the  sea,  as  a  lesson  of  humanity.  Deeming  it  irrev- 
erent to  invoke  the  deities  by  name,  he  advised  his  dis- 
ciples, when  they  wished  to  asseverate  very  solemnlj^,  to 
swear  by  the  number  four;  in  which,  for  certain  mysterious 
reasons,  he  believed  the  perfection  of  the  soul  consisted. 
He  was  married  and  had. sons,  but  taught,  very  strictly, 
the  union  of  one  man  with  one  woman  only.  Before  hia 
time,  it  was  usual  to  call  a  teacher  a  sage,  signifying  a  wise 
man  ;  but  he  called  himself  by  the  new  name  of  philoso- 
pher, a  lover  of  wisilom,  saying:   "There  is  none  wise  but 


GIIE1-:CE   AXI)    JiOME.  337 

God."  People  of  all  classes  flocked  to  hear  liim,  and 
listened  with  the  greatest  reverence.  The  Crotonians  urged 
hini  to  preside  over  their  senate,  consisting  of  a  thousand 
men.  Wherever  his  teachings  prevailed,  sobriety*  and 
temperance  displaced  licentiousness  and  luxury.  He  had 
two  methods  of  teaching,  one  public  and  the  other  private. 
His  public  teaching  consisted  principally  of  practical 
morals,  such  as  respect  to  parents  and  magistrates,  con- 
formity to  the  laws  and  customs  of  one's  country,  strict 
regard  to  truth,  and  worship  of  the  gods  by  simple  oifer- 
mgs  and  with  purity  of  heart.  He  gave  rational  maxims 
concerning  the  union  of  the  sexes  and  birth  of  children. 
He  taught  that  it  was  a  wrong  done  to  offspring  when 
parents  indulged  in  licentiousness,  or  ate  or  drank  to  ex- 
cess, or  partook  of  unwholesome  food ;  that  it  was  a  duty 
to  avoid  everything  which  might  render  children  otherwise 
than  healthy,  vigorous,  and  well  formed.  He  exerted  his 
influence  to  suppress  wars  and  quarrels.  He  used  to  say, 
we  ought  to  wage  war  only  against  ignorance  of  the  mind, 
passions  of  the  heart,  distempers  of  the  body,  sedition  in 
cities,  and  ill  will  in  families.  He  attached  mystical  sig- 
nificance to  numbers,  especially  three,  and  three  times 
three.  When  speaking  of  God  and  the  soul,  instead  of 
words,  he  often  made  use  of  figures,  which  were  incompre- 
hensible to  all  but  the  initiated.  This  was  perhaps  done 
to  avoid  alarming  popular  prejudices.  To  his  private 
school  only  a  select  body  of  disciples  were  admitted,  after 
careful  observation  of  their  countenances,  characters  and 
manners,  and  a  strict  probationary  discipline.  They  were 
required  to  eat  no  animal  food,  and  drink  only  water, 
except  a  very  small  portion  of  wine  measured  out  to  them 
in  the  evening.  They  must  be  inured  to  fatigue,  sleep 
little,  dress  very  simply,  never  return  reproaches  for  re- 
proaches, but  bear  contradiction  or  ridicule  with  the  utmost 
humility.  An  initiatory  silence  of  two  years,  sometimes 
of  five,  was  enjoined,  to  cure  them  of  conceit  and  loquacity. 
During  these  years  of  probation,  they  were  only  permitted 
to  hear  his  teachings  through  a  curtain.  Those  who  had 
Vol.  1.— 29  p 


838  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

patience  to  pass  tbrougli  the  ordeal  were  at  last  admitted 
to  the  inner  school,  and  received  a  full  explanation  of  doc- 
trines which  were  taught  to  others  obscurely,  under  a  veil 
of  symbols.  When  admitted  into  his  band  of  brethren, 
they  put  all  their  possessions  into  a  common  stock,  to  be 
distributed  by  proper  officers,  as  occasion  might  require. 
They  took  an  oath  never  to  reveal  the  doctrines  of  their 
master  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own  sect.  If  any  one 
became  discontented  and  wished  to  withdraw,  he  was  dis- 
missed with  twice  as  much  as  he  had  put  into  the  treasury, 
a  tomb  was  erected  to  his  memory,  and  he  was  ever  after 
considered  among  them  as  a  dead  man. 

Marriage  was  permitted,  but  much  restrained  by  law.  It 
was  allowable  to  have  but  one  wife,  to  whom  strict  fidelity 
was  required ;  and  intercourse,  except  for  the  sake  of 
offspring,  was  considered  shameful.  The  Pythagorean 
brethren  at  Crotona,  about  six  hundred  in  number,  lived 
with  their  wives  and  children  in  a  public  building,  where 
all  the  arrangements  were  on  a  perfect  equality.  Each  day 
began  with  deliberation  how  it  should  be  spent,  and  ended 
with  a  careful  retrospect.  They  rose  before  the  sun,  that 
they  might  pay  him  homage ;  then  they  repeated  select 
verses  from  Homer  and  other  poets,  and  attuned  their 
spirits  with  music,  vocal  and  instrumental.  Several  hours 
were  employed  in  study  of  the  sciences ;  then  there  was  an 
interval  of  leisure,  usually  spent  in  solitary  walks  and 
contemplation.  The  hour  before  dinner  was  devoted  to 
athletic  exercises.  After  they  were  initiated,  they  drank 
no  wine,  and  their  repast  consisted  chictly  of  bread,  honc}^, 
and  water.  The  remainder  of  the  day  was  devoted  to  civil 
and  domestic  affairs,  conversation,  bathing,  and  religioug 
ceremonies.  They  had  the  utmost  venei'ation  for  their 
master's  oracular  wisdom,  and  thought  it  sufficient  to 
silence  all  doubts  when  they  replied :  "  lie  has  said  it." 
They  committed  his  sayings  chiefly  to  meinor}',  and  if  they 
ventured  to  use  wi'iting,  they  kept  it  carefully  within  their 
own  limits,  lie  and  his  disciples  mutually  exhorted  each 
other  not  to  divide  asunder  the  God  that  was  in  them,  but 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  339 

be  careful  to  preserve  their  union  witli  God  and  one  aii- 
other.  His  delight  in  musical  and  mathematical  studies 
led  him  to  the  idea  that  the  spheres  in  which  the  planets 
2nove,  striking  upon  ether  as  they  pass,  must  produce 
sounds  varying  according  to  their  magtiitude  and  relative 
distance.  This  induced  his  disciples  to  say  that  he  was 
the  only  mortal  ever  so  favoured  by  the  gods  as  to  hear 
the  music  of  the  spheres.  It  is  a  singular  coincidence 
that  modern  science  expresses  the  intervals  of  music  by 
precisely  the  same  numbers  that  mark  the  distances  of  the 
planets. 

Pythagoras  taught  that  "there  is  One  Universal  Soul 
diffused  through  all  things — eternal,  invisible,  unchange- 
able;  in  essence  like  truth,  in  substance  resembling  light; 
not  to  be  represented  by  any  image,  to  be  comprehended 
only  by  the  mind ;  not,  as  some  conjecture,  exterior  to  the 
world,  but  in  himself  entire,  pervading  the  universal 
sphere."  From  this  Soul  proceeded  three  successive  ema- 
nations of  spiritual  intelligences,  which  he  calls  Gods, 
Demons,  and  Heroes.  Men  and  animals  were  likewise 
portions  of  the  same  Soul ;  the  subtile  ether  assuming 
grosser  clothing  the  farther  it  receded  from  its  divine 
source.  Therefore  he  refrained  from  killins;  or  eatinof 
animals,  because  he  considered  them  allied  to  men  in  their 
principle  of  life.  Demons  were  Spirits,  both  good  and 
evil,  dispersed  throughout  the  universe,  causing  sickness 
or  health  to  man,  and  communicating  knowledge  of  future 
events  by  dreams  and  modes  of  divination.  Tradition 
asserts  that  Pj'thagoras  himself  professed  to  cure  diseases 
by  incantations,  which  cast  out  Evil  Spirits.  Heroes  were 
defined  to  be  "rational  minds  in  luminous  bodies;"  a  class 
of  spirits  intermediate  between  demons  and  human  beings. 
Man,  being  allied  with  all  things,  the  highest  and  the 
lowest,  he  conceived  to  be  a  microcosm,  or  compendium  of 
the  universe.  He  supposed  him  to  be  composed  of  three 
parts;  a  rational  immortal  mind,  which  is  a  portion  of 
divinity,  and  seated  in  the  brain  ;  a  sensitive  irrational 
spirit,  the  seat  of  the  passions,  residing  in  the  heart;  and 


840  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

a  mortal  body,  assumed  as  a  temporary  garment.  At 
death,  the  ethereal  portion  of  man  being  freed  from  the 
chains  of  matter,  was  conducted  by  Hermes  to  the  region 
of  the  dead,  where  it  remained  in  a  state  according  to  its 
merits,  until  sent  back  to  earth  to  inhabit  some  other  body, 
human  or  animal.  When  sufficiently  purified  by  successive 
probations,  it  ascended  to  a  region  of  pure  ether,  above  the 
atmosphere  of  this  earth,  among  the  stars,  which  he  be- 
lieved to  be  inhabited  by  Spirits.  Finally,  it  returned  to 
the  Immortal  Source  whence  it  emanated. 

Tradition  reports  that  Pythagoras  professed  to  have 
direct  intercourse  with  the  gods,  by  manifest  visions,  and 
to  remember  what  bodies  his  own  soul  had  previously  ani- 
mated. First,  he  was  ^thalides,  son  of  Hermes,  and  ob- 
tained from  that  god  the  gift  of  remembering  all  that  might 
happen  to  him,  whether  in  this  life  or  after  death.  Then 
he  was  Euphorbus,  and  killed  at  the  siege  of  Troy;  then 
the  prophet  Hermotimus  ;  then  Pyrrhus,  a  fisherman  at 
Delos;  and  lastly,  Pythagoras.  During  these  transmigra- 
tions, he  occasionally  passed  into  birds,  and  sometimes  did 
penance  in  the  lower  regions  for  a  season.  He  is  said  to 
have  seen  there  Hesiod  chained  to  a  brazen  pillar,  and 
Homer  hung  on  a  tree,  surrounded  by  serpents,  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  degrading  the  character  of  the  gods  by  poetic 
fictions.  But  Pythagoras,  in  common  with  all  the  wise 
men  of  ancient  times,  doubtless  had  many  things  imputed 
to  him  which  he  never  said  or  did.  The  Golden  Verses, 
ascribed  to  him,  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  some  of  his  early  followers,  and  to  contain  the  sum- 
mary of  what  he  taught.  The  following  are  among  his 
recorded  sayings : 

"  Unity  is  the  principle  of  all  things,  and  from  this  unity 
went  forth  an  infinite  duality." 

"By  our  separation  from  God,  wo  lost  the  wings  which 
raised  us  toward  celestial  things,  and  were  thus  precipitated 
into  tliis  region  of  death,  where  all  evils  dwell.  By  put- 
ting away  earthly  affections  and  devoting  ourselves  to  vir- 
tue, our  wings  will  be  renewed,  and  we  shall  rise  to  thai 


GREECE   AND   HOME.  841 

existence  where  we  shall  find  the  true  good  without  any 
admixture  of  evil." 

"The  soul  of  man  being  between  spirits  who  always 
contemplate  the  Divine  Essence,  and  those  who  are  in- 
capable of  contemplating  it,  can  raise  itself  to  the  one,  or 
sink  itself  to  the  other." 

"  Every  quality,  which  a  man  acquires,  originates  a  good 
or  a  bad  Spirit,  which  abides  by  him  in  this  world,  and 
after  death  remains  with  him  as  a  companion." 

"  Truth  is  to  be  sought  with  a  mind  purified  from  the 
passions  of  the  body.  Having  overcome  evil  things,  thou 
shalt  experience  the  union  of  the  immortal  God  with 
mortal  man." 

"  Man  is  perfected  first  by  conversing  with  gods,  which 
he  can  only  do  when  he  abstains  from  evil,  and  strives  to 
resemble  divine  natures;  second,  by  doing  good  to  others, 
which  is  an  imitation  of  the  gods ;  third,  by  leaving  this 
mortal  bod}^" 

"  The  noblest  gifts  of  heaven  to  man,  are  to  speak  truth 
and  do  good  offices.  These  two  things  resemble  the  works 
of  God." 

"  The  discourse  of  a  philosopher  is  vain  if  no  passion 
of  a  man  is  healed  thereby." 

"Strength  of  mind  depends  on  sobriety,  for  this  keeps 
reason  unclouded  by  passion." 

"  Youth  should  be  habituated  to  obedience,  for  it  will 
then  find  it  easy  to  obey  the  authority  of  reason." 

"A  man  should  never  pray  for  anything  for  himself, 
because  every  one  is  ignorant  of  what  is  really  good  for 
him." 

"  Honour  the  gods,  and  revere  an  oath." 

"  Every  man  ought  to  act  and  speak  with  such  integrity. 
mat  no  one  would  have  reason  to  doubt  his  simple  aflirma- 
tion." 

"  Do  what  you  believe  to  be  right,  whatever  people 
think  of  you ;  despise  alike  their  censures  or  their 
praise." 

"  The  rational  mind  of  man  is  more  excellent  than  his 
Vol.  1.-29* 


342  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

sensitive  soul,  as  the  sun  is  more  excellent  than  the  stars." 
The  strong  bonds  that  united  the  disciples  of  Pytha- 
goras, and  the  secresy  they  observed,  excited  jealousy  ; 
and  he  was  accused  of  strengthening  his  influence  from 
motives  of  political  ambition.  He  fled  from  one  place  to 
another,  to  avoid  his  enemies.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
finally  took  refuge  in  the  Temple  of  the  Muses,  where,  un- 
known to  his  friends,  he  died  of  starvation  at  eighty  years 
of  age.  His  followers  took  refuge  in  Egypt.  They  are 
said  to  have  paid  him  divine  honours  after  his  death.  In 
token  of  veneration,  they  always  swore  by  his  name  when 
they  wished  to  affirm  very  solemnly.  He  continued  to 
have  many  followers  for  several  centuries.  Among  other 
peculiarities,  they  sowed  no  beans,  would  not  touch  them, 
or  pass  through  a  field  where  they  grew.  His  doctrines 
were  much  adulterated,  and  received  many  additions  from 
those  who  succeeded  him.  Many  marvellous  traditions 
have  been  handed  down  by  his  admirers.  They  say  that 
he  had  power  over  Evil  Spirits;  that  he  cured  diseases 
miraculously;  that  he  understood  the  language  of  animals ; 
that  by  speaking  a  word,  he  tamed  a  ferocious  Daunian 
bear,  that  had  committed  great  ravages ;  and  freed  Italy 
from  a  venomous  species  of  snake,  which  had  long  infested 
it;  that  he  prevented  an  ox  from  eating  beans  by  whisper- 
ing in  his  ear,  and  caused  an  eagle  to  come  down  from  the 
sky  at  his  bidding ;  that  he  was  seen  and  heard  publicly 
discoursing  in  Italy  and  Sicily  on  the  same  day  ;  that  he 
correctly  predicted  stoi'ms  and  earthquakes,  and  truly  fore- 
told future  events ;  that  when  he  was  crossing  a  river  with 
his  friends,  the  water  called  out:   "  Hail,  Pythagoras  !" 

Among  the  many  followers  of  Pythagoras,  was  a  Sicil- 
ian named  Empedocles.  He  inherited  wealth,  but  devoted 
it  chiefly  to  maintaining  the  rights  of  the  people  against 
tyranny,  and  bestowing  marriage-dowries  on  poor  girls. 
His  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  the  sciences  gave  him  a 
reputation  for  miraculous  power.  lie  was  said  to  have 
cured  those  whom  no  piiysician  could  save ;  to  have  restored 
to  life  a  woman  who  liad  lain  senseless  thirty  days;  to  have 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  o43 

checked  by  music  the  fury  of  a  young  man  about  to  in- 
flict instant  death  on  liis  enemy ;  to  have  stopped  ej)i- 
deinics,  and  driven  away  noxious  winds.  When  he  went 
to  the  Olympic  games,  the-  eyes  of  all  people  were  fixed 
upon  him,  as  if  he  were  a  supernatural  being.  It  was  re- 
ported, that  one  night,  after  a  festival,  he  was  visibly  con- 
veyed into  the  heavens,  amid  the  radiance  of  celestial  light. 
Others  said  he  threw  himself  into  the  burning  crater  of 
-i^Etna,  that  the  manner  of  his  death  might  not  be  known, 
and  that  the  volcano  afterward  threw  out  one  of  his  l)razeu 
sandals.  Tlie  third  and  most  probable  account  is  that  he 
went  into  Greece  and  never  returned.  A  statue  was 
erected  to  his  memory. 

Anaxagoras,  born  live  hundred  years  before  Christ,  trav- 
elled in  Egypt,  and  in  various  parts  of  Greece,  in  pursuit 
of  knowledge,  lie  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  among 
the  Greeks,  who  conceived  of  God  as  a  Divine  Mind,  en- 
tirely distinct  from  Matter,  and  acting  upon  it,  not  by  blind 
inhereni  necessity,  but  with  conscious  intelligence  and  de- 
sign in  the  formation  and  preservation  of  the  universe.  He 
taught  that  the  sun  was  an  inanimate  fiery  substance,  and 
therefore  not  a  proper  object  of  worship.  Eclipses  were 
universally  imputed  to  the  immediate  action  of  the  gods, 
and  when  he  attempted  to  explain  them  to  the  people  by 
natural  causes,  he  brought  himself  into  great  danger.  On 
one  occasion,  he  ridiculed  some  Athenian  priests  for  pi"e- 
dicting  disasters  from  the  unusual  appearance  of  a  ram 
with  one  horn.  To  convince  the  populace  there  was  no- 
thing supernatural  in  the  affair,  he  opened  the  head  of  the 
animal  and  showed  them  it  was  so  constructed  as  to  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  one  horn.  He  paid  the  usual  penalty 
for  being  more  wise  than  the  majorit}^  of  contemporaries. 
He  was  accused  of  not  believing  in  the  gods,  and  was  con- 
demned to  die;  to  which  he  answered  very  quietly:  "That 
sentence  was  passed  upon  me  before  I  was  born."  Pericles 
had  been  his  pupil,  and  cherished  great  respect  and  affec- 
tion for  the  good  old  man  ;  but  even  his  powerful  influence 
scarcely  availed  to  change  the  sentence  of  death  into  one 


344  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

of  banishment.  He  died  in  exile  at  Lampsacus,  at  the  age 
of  seventy-two.  When  he  was  dying,  the  senate  sent  mes- 
sengers to  inquire  in  what  way  they  coukl  most  acceptably 
express  their  respect  for  his  memory.  He  replied:  "Let 
all  the  boys  have  a  play-day  on  the  anniversary  of  my 
death."  His  request  was  complied  with,  and  the  custom 
continued  for  several  centuries. 

Socrates,  born  four  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years  before 
Christ,  was  a  common  citizen  of  Athens,  who  first  served 
as  a  soldier,  and  afterward  earned  his  living  by  making 
images.  His  excellent  character  and  earnest  desire  for 
improvement  attracted  the  attention  of  a  wealthy  man,  who 
enabled  him  to  receive  instruction  from  the  best  teachers, 
in  various  branches.  Having  thus  received  knowledge, 
he  wished  to  use  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  But 
he  established  no  school,  and  had  no  secret  doctrines  fo. 
the  initiated  only.  Seeing  the  youth  of  Athens  were  be- 
coming demoralized  by  luxury,  and  led  astray  by  witty 
scoffers  at  all  sacred  things,  he  relinquished  business,  and 
devoted  all  his  time  to  talking  in  the  markets,  workshops^ 
or  public  walks,  wherever  he  could  get  an  audience  to  listen 
to  him.  With  mechanics,  sailors,  artists,  magistrates,  and 
philosophers,  he  discoursed  familiarly  concerning  moral 
principles,  religious  and  social  duties,  or  even  the  sciences, 
arts,  or  trades,  in  which  they  were  engaged. 

He  had  a  large  intellectual  head,  but  his  personal  ugli- 
ness was  a  subject  of  jesting  both  with  friends  and  enemies, 
who  were  wont  to  compare  him,  in  that  particular,  with 
Silenus  and  the  Satyrs.  A  physiognomist,  who  was  unac- 
quainted with  him,  declared  that  his  countenance  indicated 
a  very  immodest  and  corrupt  nature.  His  disciples  were 
much  incensed  at  this  declaration  ;  but  Socrates  cooled 
their  anger,  by  confessing  that  the  stranger  had  rightly 
judged  his  natural  propensities,  which,  however,  he  had 
brougiit  under  the  control  of  reason.  His  constitution  was 
so  robust,  that  he  endured  hunger  and  cold  with  indilfer- 
cnce.  He  was  very  abstemious  in  his  diet;  the  same  homely 
clothing  served  him  for  summer  and  winter;  and  he  always 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  345 

went  barefoot,  even  wlien  serving  in  the  army  amid  the 
severe  frosts  of  Thrace.  He  would  never  receive  any  pay 
for  his  instructions,  and  frequently  refused  rich  presents, 
though  urged  to  accept  them.  He  passed  his  life  in  volun- 
tary and  contented  poverty,  sustained  by  a  firm  conviction 
that  he  was  sent  into  the  world  to  fulfil  a  special  religious 
mission.  He  bore  injuries  with  the  greatest  patience  ;  and 
he  not  only  treated  insults  Avith  quiet  indifference,  but  even 
felt  a  degree  of  compassion  for  those  who  were  capable  of 
bestowing  them.  His  teaching  was  eminently  moral  in  its 
character.  He  thought  philosophers  expended  too  much 
time  and  ingenuity  in  metaphysical  arguments  concerning 
the  nature  of  God  and  the  soul.  On  such  high  themes  he. 
deemed  it  becoming  to  speculate  but  little.  Following  the 
practical  bias  of  his  mind,  he  reasoned  from  external  effects 
to  spiritual  causes. 

He  said  to  his  hearers:  "Reflect  that  your  own  mind  di- 
rects your  body  by  its  volitions,  and  you  must  be  convinced 
that  the  Intelligence  of  the  Universe  disposes  all  things  ac- 
cording to  his  pleasure.  Can  you  imagine  that  your  eye  is 
capable  of  discerning  distant  objects,  and  that  the  eye  of 
God  cannot  at  the  same  instant  see  all  things?  Or  that 
while  your  mind  can  contemplate  the  affairs  of  distant 
countries,  the  Supreme  Understanding  cannot  attend  at 
once  to  all  the  affairs  of  the  universe  ?  Such  is  the  nature 
of  the  Divinity,  that  he  sees  all  things,  hears  all  things,  is 
everywhere  present,  and  constantl}'  superintends  all  things. 
He  who  disposes  and  directs  the  universe,  the  source  of  all 
that  is  fair  and  good,  who  amid  successive  changes  pre- 
serves the  course  of  nature  unimpaired,  and  to  whose  laws 
all  beings  are  subject,  this  Supreme  Deity,  though  himself 
invisible,  is  manifestly  seen  in  his  magnificent  operations. 
Learn  then,  from  the  things  which  are  produced,  to  infer  the 
existence  of  an  invisible  power,  and  to  reverence  the  Di- 
vinity." 

"  If  thou  wouldst  know  what  is  the  wisdom  of  the  gods, 
and  what  their  love  is,  render  thyself  deserving  the  com- 
munication of  some  of  those  divine  secrets,  which  may  not 

p* 


846  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

be  penetrated  by  man,  and  which  are  imparted  to  those 
alone  who  consult,  adore,  and  obey  the  Deity.  Then  shalt 
thou  understand  tliat  there  is  a  Being,  whose  eye  pierceth 
through  all  nature,  and  whose  ear  is  open  to  every  sound, 
extending  through  all  space,  pervading  all  time,  and  whose 
bounty  and  care  can  know  no  other  bounds  than  those 
fixed  by  his  own  creation." 

"  The  Deity  sees  and  hears  all  things,  is  everywhere  pres- 
ent, and  takes  care  of  all  things.  If  men  believed  this, 
they  would  abstain  from  all  base  actions,  even  in  private, 
being  persuaded  that  nothing  they  did  could  be  unknown 
to  the  gods." 

"  There  is  no  better  way  to  true  glory,  than  to  endeavour 
to  he  good,  rather  than  seem  so." 

lie  inferred  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  from  the  fact 
that  it  gives  life  to  the  body  ;  from  the  phenomena  of  dream- 
ing ;  from  the  universal  belief  of  former  ages  ;  and  from  the 
eternity  of  the  Divine  Being,  to  whom  he  believed  the  soul 
was  allied  by  similarity  of  nature,  not  by  a  participation 
of  his  essence.  lie  described  the  sufferings  of  the  wicked 
by  representing  their  souls  as  ulcerated  and  horribly  dis- 
eased, and  subject  to  fearful  pains,  occasioned  by  the  vices 
of  their  bodies.  The  true  interpreter  of  the  will  of  Deity- 
he  considered  to  be  a  moral  sense  in  man,  which  distin- 
guishes between  right  and  wrong.  lie  thought  it  a  duty 
for  every  one  to  perform  religious  rites  according  to  the 
customs  of  his  country.  But  he  always  declared  that  divine 
fiivours  could  not  be  purchased ;  they  must  be  merited ; 
and  that  could  only  be  done  by  a  blameless  life,  the  truest 
and  best  manner  of  serving  Deity.  He  disapproved  of 
swearing  by  the  gods,  and  thought  the  })()pular  legends 
concerning  them  tended  to  produce  irreverence.  lie  incul- 
cated the  duty  of  prayer,  and  taught  his  disciples  this  sim- 
ple form :  "  Father  Jupiter,  give  us  all  good,  whether  we 
ask  it  or  not;  and  avert  from  us  all  evil,  though  we  do  not 
pray  thee  to  do  so.  Bless  our  good  actions,  and  reward 
them  with  success  and  ha})j)ineps."  Plato,  who  was  familiar 
with  his  habits,  represents  him  as  saying  to  Phoedrus,  when 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  347 

about  to  return  liomc  from  an  excursion :  "  Must  we  not 
offer  up  a  prayer  before  we  go  ?"  And  thus  did  the  devout 
man  pour  forth  his  reverential  feeling  in  the  Grecian  form: 
"O  beloved  Pan,  and  all  ye  gods  whose  dwelling  is  in  this 
place,  grant  me  to  be  beautiful  in  soul ;  and  may  all  that  I 
possess  of  outward  things  be  at  harmon}^  with  those  within. 
Teach  me  to  think  wisdom  the  only  riches;  and  give  me 
only  so  much  wealth  as  a  good  and  holy  man  could  man- 
age and  enjoy."  Xenophon  says:  "He  sacrificed  on  the 
public  altars  of  the  city,  and  often  at  his  own  house.  lie 
also  practised  divination  in  the  most  public  manner."  He 
himself  asks  :  "  Do  I  not  believe,  as  well  as  others,  that  the 
sun  and  moon  are  gods?  Do  we  not  believe  demons  to  be 
gods  or  sons  of  gods  ?"  He  often  declared,  with  great  so- 
lemnity, that  the  devotion  of  his  time  and  talents  to  the 
instruction  of  others  had  been  enjoined  upon  him  "  by  the 
gods,  by  oracles,  by  tJie  god,  b}^  dreams,  and  every  other 
mode  in  which  by  divination  they  order  things  to  be  done." 

He  made  frequent  allusion  to  "  a  demon,"  who  he  says 
warned  him  what  to  avoid.  This  divine  voice  had  accom- 
panied him  from  his  youth.  It  often  forbade  him  to  do 
things,  but  never  prompted  him  to  any  particular  ac- 
tion. Sometimes  it  made  suggestions  with  regard  to  the 
conduct  of  others ;  and  he  declared  that  whenever,  from 
this  warning,  he  signified  the  will  of  the  gods  to  any  of  his 
friends,  he  never  found  himself  deceived.  Plato  represents 
him  as  saying,  in  conversation :  "  When  I  was  about  to 
cross  the  river,  the  usual  demoniacal  sign  was  given  me; 
and  whenever  this  takes  place,  it  always  prohibits  me  from 
accomplishing  what  I  am  about  to  do.  In  the  present  in- 
stance, I  seemed  to  hear  a  certain  voice,  which  would  not 
suffer  me  to  depart,  till  I  had  made  an  expiation  ;  as  if  I 
had  in  some  way  offended  a  divine  nature.  I  am  therefore 
a  prophet,  though  not  a  perfectly  worthy  one  ;  but  just 
such  a  one  as  a  man  who  knows  his  letters  indifferently 
well — merely  sufiieient  for  what  concerns  himself" 

This  "  demon"  of  Socrates  has  greatly  puzzled  modern 
inquirers.     Some  have  conjectured  that  he  merely  meant 


348  TROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOL'S    IDEAS. 

the  voice  of  conscience,  or  of  reason,  within  his  own  soul. 
But  we  know  from  his  own  testimony,  and  from  Xeno- 
phon,  that  he  adopted  the  universal  belief  of  his  age  con- 
cerning Spirits,  who  mediated  between  gods  and  men.  Both 
Greeks  and  "Romans  believed  in  the  Oriental  doctrine,  that 
every  human  being,  as  well  as  every  other  form  of  being, 
had  an  attendant  Spirit,  who  introduced  him  into  life,  ac- 
companied him  through  the  whole  course  of  it,  and  at  death 
conducted  him  out  of  the  world.  The  Genii  of  men  were 
masculine,  those  of  women  were  feminine.  Some  believed 
that  each  person  had  two ;  one  bright  and  good,  to  whom 
he  was  indebted  for  the  favourable  events  of  life,  the  other 
black  and  evil,  the  cause  of  his  misfortunes.  Some  sup- 
posed the  same  Genius  was  either  white  or  black,  friend  or 
enemy,  according  to  a  person's  behaviour.  Hence  it  was  a 
common  caution:  "Be  careful  not  to  incense  thy  Genius." 
"  Be  reconciled  with  thy  Genius."  The  more  perfect  the 
friendship  entertained  by  the  Genius  for  the  person  under 
his  protection,  the  greater  was  his  liappiness  and  good  for- 
tune. When  a  man  died,  this  guardian  returned  to  the 
Universal  Source  of  Spirit,  whence  he  had  emanated.  The 
Greeks,  who  always  clothed  abstract  ideas  in  graceful  forms, 
represented  the  Genius  of  Human  Nature  by  statues  of  a 
beautiful  youth,  sometimes  naked,  with  wings,  sometimes 
wearing  a  wreath  of  flowers  and  a  garment  covered  with 
stars.  It  seems  very  likely  that  "  the  demon"  of  the  Athe- 
nian philosopher  belonged  to  this  class  of  beings.  He  him- 
self never  personified  it,  but  always  spoke  of  it  as  "  a  divine 
sign,"  or  "  supernatural  voice." 

Socrates  was  distinguished  for  chcx'rfulncss,  cquabihty 
of  temper,  and  the  most  inflexible  integi-ity.  lie  is  re- 
ported to  have  had  an  extremely  iri'itubie  wife,  whose 
reproaches  he  bore  with  the  utmost  patience.  lie  twice 
served  in  tlic  councils  of  state,  and  several  times  in  the 
army.  He  was  so  universally  honoured,  that  the  most  dis- 
tinguished citizens  of  Athens  constituted  themselves  his 
stewards,  and  sent  him  ])rovisions  as  they  thought  he 
needed,  in  order  that  he  might  devote  himself  entirely  to 


GREECE   AND   ROME,  o-tO 

public  instruction,  lie  took  what  necessity  required,  and 
returned  the  remainder.  Xenophon  says  of  him  :  "  lie  was 
so  pious,  that  he  undertook  nothing  witliout  asking  counsel 
of  the  gods;  so  just,  that  he  never  did  the  smallest  injury 
to  any  one,  but  rendered  essential  services  to  many ;  so 
temperate,  that  he  never  preferred  pleasure  to  virtue;  and 
so  wise,  that  he  was  able,  even  in  the  most  difficult  cases, 
to  judge  what  was  expedient  and  right."  His  manner  of 
discoursing  in  public  seems  to  have  produced  a  powerful 
effect  on  his  hearers.  The  wealthy  and  dashing  Alcibiades 
said  of  him:  "No  mortal  speech  has  ever  excited  in  my 
mind  such  emotions  as  are  kindled  by  this  magician.  My 
heart  leaps  like  an  inspired  Corybant.  My  inmost  soul  is 
stung  by  his  words,  as  by  the  bite  of  a  serpent.  It  is  in- 
dignant at  its  own  rude  and  ignoble  character.  I  often 
weep  tears  of  regret  to  thiidi  how  vain  and  inglorious  is 
the  life  I  lead.  Nor  am  I  the  only  one  that  weeps  like  a 
child  and  despairs  of  himself;  many  others  are  alfected  in 
the  same  way." 

When  Socrates  was  sixty-three  years  old,  he  was  chosen 
member  of  the  senate,  and  carried  into  political  life  the 
same  firmness  and  honesty  that  had  marked  his  character 
in  all  other  relations  with  his  fellow  men.  He  incurred 
great  unpopularity,  and  some  personal  hazard,  by  refusing 
to  obey  orders  that  he  deemed  unjust,  or  to  put  to  vote  an 
unconstitutional  question.  His  diligence  and  directness  in 
contending  against  all  pretension  and  false  appearances 
likewise  made  him  many  enemies  among  artful  and  con- 
ceited men.  Notwithstanding  his  wisdom  and  his  virtues, 
he  was  sunnnoned  before  the  tribunal  of  Five  Hundred,  to 
answer  the  charge  of  corrupting  the  youth  of  Athens,  of 
despising  the  tutelary  deities  of  the  state,  and  teaching  the 
worship  of  new  divinities,  not  sanctioned  by  law.  Ijysias, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  orators  of  the  age,  composed  an 
eloquent  speech  in  his  defence,  but  the  philosopher  de- 
clined his  assistance,  declaring  to  his  judges  that  "the 
Divine  Voice"  had  forbidden  him  to  make  any  defence; 
and  that  not  only  once,  but  twice.  In  an  address  to  them, 
Vol.  I.— 30 


350  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

distinguished  for  simplicity  and  earnestness,  he  confessed 
that  he  knew  nothing,  but  he  said  it  had  always  been  his 
wish  to  promote  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  his  fellow 
citizens ;  that  whatever  he  possessed  had  always  been  de- 
voted to  their  service;  that  he  fulfilled  this  duty  by  special 
command  of  the  gods;  he  added,  emphatically,  "whose 
authority  I  regard  more  than  I  do  yours."  He  was  con- 
demned by  a  majority  of  six  votes.  When  requested,  ac- 
cording to  custom,  to  choose  what  death  he  would  die,  he 
would  not  consent  to  any  greater  punishment  than  a  fine, 
on  the  security  of  Plato  and  other  friends.  Instead  of 
acknowledging  himself  guilty,  or  seeking  to  excite  com- 
passion, he  said :  "  For  my  efforts  to  teach  the  young  men 
of  Athens  justice  and  moderation,  I  better  deserve  to  be 
maintained  at  the  public  expense,  than  do  the  victors  in 
the  Olj'mpic  Games ;  for  they  make  their  countrymen 
more  happy  in  appearance,  while  I  have  made  them  so  in 
reality."  This  coolness  and  dignity  of  deportment  offended 
the  judges,  and  they  condemned  him  to  drink  poison,  by  a 
majority  of  eighty.  He  received  the  sentence  with  perfect 
equanimity.  After  a  short  speech,  in  which  he  commended 
his  children  to  the  care  of  the  senate,  he  concluded  by 
saying:  "In  death  we  either  lose  all  consciousness,  or,  as 
it  is  said,  go  into  some  other  place.  If  so,  it  will  be  much 
better ;  for  we  shall  then  be  out  of  the  power  of  partial 
judges,  and  come  before  those  who  are  impartial." 

An  embassy  was  annually  sent  to  the  sacred  island  of 
Dclos,  the  birthplace  of  Apollo,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to 
be  put  to  death  till  the  vessel  returned,  and  the  solemnities 
of  the  Delian  Festival  were  concluded.  As  the  condemna- 
tion of  Socrates  occurred  at  that  time,  he  remained  thirty 
days  chained  in  prison.  His  friends  urged  him  to  escape, 
and  one  of  them  bi'ibed  the  jailer  for  that  purpose.  But 
he  declined  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity  thus  offered, 
saying,  with  his  usual  pleasantry:  "Where  can  I  fly,  to 
avoid  the  irrevocable  doom  passed  on  all  mortals?"  Tlis 
friends  and  disciples  were  with  him  almost  constantly.  He 
talked  calmly  and  cheerfully  with  them  concerning  the  ex- 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  351 

istence  and  destiny  of  the  soul.  When  one  of  them  wept 
that  he,  being'  so  innocent,  shouUl  be  condemned  to  die,  he 
I'eplied:  "What  then,  would  you  have  me  die  guilty?" 
A  few  hours  before  his  death,  he  said  to  those  around 
him:  "I  must  die,  while  you  continue  in  life.  Tlie  gods 
alone  can  tell  which  is  to  be  preferred,  for  in  my  opinion 
no  man  can  know."  To  one  who  doubted  the  existence 
of  Deity  he  said:  "0  Aristodemus,  apply  yourself  sin- 
cerely to  worship  God.  He  will  enlighten  you,  and  then 
all  your  doubts  will  be  removed."  After  drinking  the 
poison,  he  said:  "It  would  be  inexcusable  in  me  tlms  to 
despise  death,  if  I  were  not  persuaded  that  it  will  conduct 
me  into  the  presence  of  the  gods,  who  are  most  righteous 
governors,  and  into  the  society  of  just  and  good  men  ;  but 
I  derive  confidence  from  the  hope  that  something  of  man 
remains  after  death,  and  that  the  condition  of  good  men 
will  then  be  much  better  than  that  of  the  bad."  Again  he 
said:  "The  soul,  which  cannot  die,  merits  all  the  moral 
and  intellectual  improvement  we  can  possibly  give  it.  A 
spirit  formed  to  live  forever  should  be  making  continual 
advances  in  virtue  and  wisdom.  To  a  well  cultivated 
mind  the  body  is  merely  a  temporary  prison.  At  death, 
such  a  soul  is  conducted  by  its  invisible  guardian  to  the 
heights  of  empyrean  felicity,  where  it  becomes  a  fellow 
commoner  with  the  wise  and  good  of  all  ages."  AVhen 
Crito  asked  in  wdiat  manner  he  wished  to  be  buried,  he 
replied,  with  a  smile:  "Any  way  you  please,  provided  I 
do  not  escape  out  of  your  hands."  Then,  turning  to  his 
other  friends,  he  asked :  "  Is  it  not  strange,  after  all  I  have 
said  to  convince  you  I  am  going  to  the  society  of  the 
happy,  that  Crito  still  thinks  this  body  to  be  Socrates? 
Let  him  dispose  of  my  lifeless  corpse  as  he  pleases,  but  let 
him  not  mourn  over  it,  as  if  that  were  Socrates."  A  few 
moments  before  he  expired,  he  reminded  Crito  not  to 
forget  to  sacrifice  a  cock,  which  he  had  vowed  to  iEscu- 
lapius.  He  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age.  Tlie 
tidings  of  his  death  occasioned  such  general  indignation 
througliout  the  states  of  Greece,  that  the  Athenians  became 


362'  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDKAS. 

thoroughly  ashamed,  and  manifested  their  repentance  by  a 
decree  of  pubhc  mourning  and  the  erection  of  a  statue  to 
his  memory. 

Phito,  born  four  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years  before 
Christ,  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates.  Wiien  his  father  first 
conducted  him  to  the  school,  the  teacher  was  just  saying 
that  he  dreamed  a  young  swan  flew  from  the  altar  of  Eros 
and  alighted  on  his  lap,  whence  he  soared  singing  into  the 
air,  alluring  all  who  heard  his  high  sweet  voice.  Plato 
entered  while  he  spoke,  and  he  said  :  "Behold  the  swan  1" 
This  illustrious  pupil  was  accused  of  preferring  metaphy- 
sical speculations,  and  the  mysteries  of  Egypt,  to  the  plain 
practical  wisdom  of  his  master,  for  whom,  however,  he  had 
great  reverence.  Ilis  own  soul  was  of  another  mould.  It 
was  essentially  poetic,  and  gave  that  tinge  to  everything  it 
touched.  After  the  death  of  Socrates,  he  went  to  Magn» 
Grecia  and  staid  some  time  with  the  followers  of  Pytha- 
goras, of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  purchased  some  of  his 
recorded  opinions  at  a  high  price.  He  afterward  went  to 
Eg3q)t,  where  he  spent  thirteen  years  at  the  most  cele- 
brated priestly  schools.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
more  than  forty  years  old  when  he  returned  to  Athens, 
and  opened  a  school  of  philosoph}^  in  the  beautiful  grove 
of  Acadcmus,  shaded  by  lofty  plane  trees,  intersected  by  a 
gentle  stream,  and  adorned  with  temples  and  statues.  In 
the  midst  of  his  fame,  he  evinced  as  much  desire  to  learn 
of  others,  as  to  teach.  One  of  his  friends,  observing  this, 
asked  him  how  long  he  intended  to  be  a  scholar.  He  re- 
plied: "As  long  as  I  am  not  ashamed  to  grow  wiser  and 
better."  lie  adopted  the  Egyptian  fashion  of  concealing 
his  opinions  on  spiritual  subjects;  partly,  perhaps,  because 
he  was  warned  by  the  fate  of  Socrates. 

"It  is  a  difficult  thing,"  says  he,  "to  api^rehend  the 
nature  of  the  Creator  of  the  universe ;  and  it  would  be 
impossible,  and  even  impious,  to  expose  tlie  discovery  to 
connnf))!  understandings."  lie  did  not  shut  his  gates,  or 
demand  an  oath  of  secres}'-.  from  his  disciples,  like  Pytha- 
goras, but  he  j)urpi)sely  thiew  a  veil  of  obscurity  over  his 


GREECE    AXD    ROME.  o53 

public  instructions,  and  removed  it  only  with  very  con- 
fldential  friends.  He  inculcated  temperancC)  prudence, 
justice,  and  self-control.  His  own  command  of  tem))er 
was  so  great,  that  once  when  he  had  raised  his  hand  to 
strike  a  servant  for  some  offence,  he  stopped  and  kept  his 
arm  in  that  position.  A  friend  coming  in  asked  what  he 
was  doing.  "I  am  punishing  an  angry  man,"  replied  he. 
But  the  strongest  tendency  of  his  mind  was  toward  the 
supernatural ;  and  more  than  all  philosophers  he  reasoned 
about  the  origin  and  destiny  of  the  soul.  He  taught  the 
existence  of  one  Supreme  Being,  without  beginning,  end, 
or  change.  This  being  he  called  The  Good,  and  compared 
him  to  the  sun,  "  which  not  only  makes  objects  visible,  but 
is  the  cause  of  their  generation,  nutriment,  and  increase. 
So  The  Good,  through  superessential  light,  imparts  being, 
and  the  power  of  being  known,  to  everything  which  is  the 
object  of  knowledge." 

He  supposed  God  and  Matter  to  be  two  eternally  distinct 
principles,  opposite  in  their  nature.  Matter,  which  he  calls 
"•the  mother  and  receptacle  of  forms,"  had  within  it  an  in- 
herent perversity,  a  refractory  force,  which  distorted  what- 
ever of  the  Divine  became  connected  with  it;  thus  it  was 
the  origin  of  evil.  The  lirst  emanation  from  The  Good  was 
Mind  ;  immortal,  indivisible,  unchangeable,  a  portion  of 
Deity  himself  This  Power  being  mingled  with  the  femi- 
nine principle  of  Matter  caused  the  birth  of  a  third,  which 
he  calls  The  Soul  of  the  World,  and  supposes  to  be  the 
pervading  and  animating  principle  of  the  universe.  This 
Platonic  Trinity  was  purely  figurative.  It  related  to  the 
attributes  of  the  Divine  Being,  not  to  persons.  It  was 
merely  a  metaphysical  way  of  saying  that  the  Good  Being, 
by  agenc}'-  of  his  Wisdom,  produced  a  manifestation  of  his 
ideas,  which  was  the  Model  World,  according  to  which 
this  visible  earth  was  made.  In  the  same  metaphorical 
way,  he  often  calls  the  world  The  Son  of  God.  Sometimes 
he  asserts  that  it  was  without  beginning;  in  other  places 
he  speaks  of  it  as  begotten.  He  doubtless  means  that  the 
Model  World  of  ideas  was  eternal,  being  co-existent  with 
Vol.  I.— 30* 


35-i  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

the  Divine  Mind;  but  tliat  the  inferior  world  was  produced 
by  union  with  IVIatter. 

From  the  Soul  of  the  World,  God  separated  inferior 
souls,  equal  in  number  to  the  stars,  and  assigned  to  each 
its  proper  celestial  abode.  These  souls,  not  being  direct 
emanations  from  pure  Divinity,  but  through  the  interven- 
tion of  The  Soul  of  the  World,  which  was  itself  debased 
by  an  admixture  with  Matter,  have  in  them  two  dominant 
springs  derived  from  their  two  different  origins;  the  love 
of  good,  and  the  desire  of  pleasure.  These  are  the  wings 
of  the  soul,  and  so  long  as  they  are  not  separated,  all  is 
well ;  but  when  the  love  of  pleasure  becomes  divided  from 
the  love  of  good,  then  souls  descend  in  the  scale  of  being. 
He  represents  Jupiter,  followed  by  subordinate  Gods  and 
Spirits,  traversing  the  heavens  and  admiring  the  wonders 
of  the  universe.  They  ascend  above  the  spheres,  to  a  re- 
gion where  souls  contemplate  that  True  Existence,  v/hich 
has  neither  colour  nor  form,  and  can  be  perceived  only  by 
the  eyes  of  the  spirit.  There  they  see  Goodness  and  Truth 
as  they  exist  in  Him  who  is  Being  itself  They  contem- 
plate this  glory  till  they  can  no  longer  endure  its  radiance ; 
then  they  descend  to  Olympus,  where  they  refresh  them- 
selves with  nectar  and  ambrosia.  Souls  who  faithfully  fol- 
low Jupiter  in  this  mode  of  life  remain  pure.  But  if  they 
])refer  nectar  and  ambrosia  to  the  contemplation  of  truth 
in  its  Divine  Essence,  they  become  dull  and  heavy,  lose 
their  wings,  and  fall  downward,  instead  of  ascending.  For 
such  souls  was  this  earth  provided,  and  human  bodies. 

He  suj^poses  the  world  to  be  divided  into  three  parts,  or 
zones;  the  ethereal,  the  aerial,  and  the  material.  The  ethe- 
real, in  the  pure  regions  of  heaven,  where  are  the  stars,  is 
the  former  residence  of  our  souls,  before  we  fell.  That  is 
the  ])ermanent  world  ;  there  are  the  real  ideal  types  of  be- 
ing, frrsh  from  the  Divine  Mind.  "All  is  beautiful,  har- 
monious, transparent.  Fruits  of  exquisite  flavour  grow 
Hpontaneously;  rivers  of  nectai-  How;  they  breathe  light, 
as  we  breathe  air,  and  drink  water  more  pure  than  air  it- 
self."    "  We  who  live  in  this  profound  abyss  (the  material 


GREECE   AND   KOMK.  855 

world)  imagine  that  we  are  in  an  elevated  place,  and  we 
call  the  atmosphere  heaven ;  as  if  a  man  looking  at  sun 
and  stars  from  tlie  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  seeing  them 
reflected  through  the  water,  should  imagine  the  sea  itself 
was  the  sky.  If  we  had  wings  to  rise  on  high,  we  should 
see  that  there  is  the  true  heaven,  the  true  light,  and  the 
true  earth.  As  in  the  sea  all  is  troubled,  and  disfigured  by 
the  salts  which  abound  there,  so  in  this  present  world  all 
is  deformed  and  ruined,  in  comj)arison  with  that  primitive 
world." 

Our  perceptions  of  the  true  and  the  beautiful  are  merely 
"  recollections  of  what  the  soul  formerly  saw,  when  it  dwelt 
with  Divinity,  in  a  perfect  state  of  being;  when  it  despised 
what  we  now  consider  realities,  and  was  siipernally  ele- 
vated to  the  contemplation  of  that  which  is  true.  Unless 
the  soul  of  man  had  once  perceived  divine  realities,  it  could 
not  have  entered  the  human  form.  But  few  ivn^ember 
the  sacred  mysteries  they  once  perceived  ;  and  these,  when 
they  behold  any  similitude  of  supernal  forms,  are  astonished, 
and,  as  it  were,  rapt  above  themselves.  But  at  the  same 
time,  they  are  ignorant  what  this  passion  may  be,  because 
they  are  not  endowed  with  sufficient  perception." 

lie  compared  souls  in  this  world  to  men  fettered  in  a 
deep  cave,  where  the  only  light  admitted  proceeded  from  a 
fire  burning  far  above  and  behind  them.  Many  objects 
passed  and  repassed  in  the  light,  but  the  prisoner  could 
only  see  shadows  on  the  wall,  caused  by  the  reflection  of 
the  fire.  All  things  in  this  material  world  he  consii^lered 
mere  transitory  illusive  phantoms,  deformed  by  connection 
with  Matter.  Souls  imprisoned  in  mortal  bodies,  subject 
to  debasing  and  distorting  passions,  he  likened  to  Glaucus, 
who,  plunging  into  the  sea,  is  imagined  by  poets  as  half 
transformed  into  a  fish,  his  manly  figure  rendered  shape- 
less by  incrustations  of  sand,  shells,  and  sea-weed. 

Of  the  multitude  of  Spirits  intermediate  between  gods 
and  men,  he  says:  "Their  office  is  to  convey  and  interpret 
to  the  gods  the  prayers  and  offerings  of  men,  and  bring  to 
men  the  commands  of  the  gods.     These  demons  are  the 


356  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

source  of  all  prophecy,  and  of  the  art  of  priests  in  relation 
to  sacrifices,  consecrations,  and  conjurations.  Deity  lias  no 
immediate  intercourse  with  men.  All  communications  be- 
tween gods  and  mortals  is  carried  on  by  means  of  demons ; 
both  in  sleeping  and  waking."  Elsewhere  he  says  of  them 
that  "they  are  clothed  with  air,  wander  through  heaven, 
hover  over  the  stars,  and  abide  on  the  earth.  They  behold 
unveiled  the  secrets  of  time  to  come,  and  regulate  events 
according  to  their  pleasure."  He  believed  every  human 
being  received  at  birth  a  guardian  Spirit,  who  accompanied 
him  to  the  end,  witnessed  all  his  thoughts  and  actions,  con- 
ducted his  soul  to  the  Judges  of  the  Dead,  and  testified  con- 
cerning his  motives  and  actions. 

He  supposed  man  to  consist  of  three  parts :  the  rational 
mind  ;  the  soul's  image  ;  and  the  body.  This  image  is  de- 
scribed as  "  the  feminine  faculty  of  the  soul,  and  her  vital 
energy  upon  the  body."  He  taught  that  the  rational  soul 
could  never  die  ;  it  only  changed  forms.  As  waking  ends 
in  sleep,  and  sleep  terminates  in  waking,  so  life  ends  in 
death,  and  death  in  life.  Souls  that  fell  from  their  high 
estate,  and  so  came  to  inhabit  human  bodies,  could  gradu- 
ally regain  their  glory,  by  striving  to  disengage  themselves 
from  animal  passions,  and  to  rise  above  external  circum- 
stances to  the  contemplation  of  divine  realities.  But  if  they 
gave  themselves  up  to  sensual  pleasures,  they  wandered  long 
upon  the  earth,  entering  successive  forms.  "  For  all  volup- 
tuousness ties  the  soul  to  the  body,  persuading  her  that  she 
is  of  the  same  nature,  and  rendering  her,  so  to  speak,  cor- 
])oreal  ;  so  that  she  cannot  wing  her  way  to  a  higher  life, 
but,  impure  and  heavy,  plungc>s  anew  into  Matter,  and  thus 
becomes  incapable  of  reascending  toward  pure  regions,  and 
uniting  with  her  essence."  The  soul  of  a  depraved  man 
might,  in  its  second  condition,  assume  the  form  of  a  woman, 
and  finally  even  descend  into  that  of  a  beast.  An  animal 
might  become  a  man,  if  his  soul  had  once  been  that  of  a 
man;  but  a  soul  vvhicli  had  never,  in  some  period  of  its 
existence,  perceived  <liviiie  realities,  could  not  possibly 
enter  a  human  form.     Some  souls,  after  they  were  judged, 


GREECE   AND   HOME.  357 

would  be  scMit  to  a  subtci'rancan  place,  there  to  endure 
punishments  they  had  deserved  ;  others  would  ascend  to 
their  Icindred  stars,  to  enjoy  themselv^es  in  a  manner  corre- 
sponding to  the  life  they  had  lived  as  men.  At  the  end  of 
one  thousand  years,  all  of  them  would  return,  with  liberty 
to  select  a  second  life  on  earth  agreeable  to  their  own  de- 
sire. Their  choice  would  be  influenced  b};"  the  degree  to 
which  they  had  allowed  themselves  to  become  imbruted, 
and  the  processes  of  purification  they  had  undergone. 
Those  who  thrice  chose  to  devote  themselves  to  a  life  in 
which  they  could  sincerely  seek  wisdom  and  love  beautiful 
realities,  would  fly  away  to  their  primeval  abode  of  glory, 
at  the  end  of  three  thousand  years.  But  those  who  did 
not,  through  three  successive  lives,  "philosophize  sincerely, 
and  love  beautiful  forms,"  would  have  to  Avait  ten  thousand 
years,  before  they  regained  their  lost  wings.  This  was 
sometimes  called  "  The  soul's  orbit  of  necessit\^" 

Plato,  in  common  with  most  of  the  philosophic  minds  of 
Greece,  was  troubled  with  the  stories  told  by  Homer,  and 
other  popular  poets,  concerning  the  gods;  because  he  con- 
sidered such  descriptions  calculated  to  promote  irreverence 
toward  divine  natures.  But  he  strove  to  reconcile  the 
faith  of  his  childhood  with  the  requirements  of  his  spiritual 
growth,  by  allegorical  interpretations,  v/hich  transformed 
them  from  imaginative  legends  into  significant  myths. 
He  discountenanced,  as  dangerous,  any  attempts  to  change 
established  modes  of  worship.  Those  who  despised  oaths, 
omitted  sacrifices,  and  neglected  the  gods,  he  thought 
ought  to  be  put  to  death  if  they  were  deliberate  and  rational. 
If  they  did  it  in  a  kind  of  madness,  he  thought  they  ought 
to  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  five- years,  and  the  citizens 
not  allowed  to  communicate  with  them.  He  believed  that 
men  had  gradually  degenerated  from  a  primeval  state  of 
innocence  and  equality,  and  that  the  world  would  be  alter- 
nately destroyed  and  renewed,  after  the  lapse  of  vast  as- 
tronomical cycles.  He  favoured  the  popular  idea  that 
spirits  of  the  dead  often  hovered  round  the  ashes  of  their 


358  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

old  bodies,  waiting  until  the  new  forms  were  ready  for 
their  reception. 

Like  all  other  poets  and  philosophers,  he  looked  back 
upon  a  Golden  Past,  and  hoped  for  a  Golden  Future.  lie 
thus  describes  the  reign  of  Saturn:  "God  was  then  the 
Prince  and  common  Father  of  all.  He  then  governed  the 
world  by  himself;  whereas  he  now  governs  it  by  the  agency 
of  inferior  deities.  In  those  happy  days,  the  fertile  fields 
yielded  fruit  and  corn  without  tillage.  Men  had  no  need 
of  clothing,  for  there  was  no  inclemency  in  the  seasons. 
They  took  their  rest  on  beds  of  moss  perpetually  verdant. 
Cruelty  and  anger,  war  and  sedition,  were  unknown. 
There  were  no  magistrates  or  civil  polic}^,  as  now.  All 
men  were  governed  by  reason  and  the  love  of  order." 

After  that,  Saturn  was  hurled  from  his  throne,  and  "  hid 
himself  in  an  inaccessible  retreat.  The  foundations  of  the 
world  were  shaken  by  motions  contrary  to  its  first  prin- 
ciples, and  its  beauty  and  order  were  lost.  Then  were 
good  and  evil  blended  together." 

"In  the  end,  lest  the  world  should  be  plunged  into  an 
eternal  abyss  of  confusion,  the  Author  of  Primitive  Order 
will  appear  again,  and  resume  the  reins  of  empire.  He  will 
change,  amend,  embellish,  and  restore  the  whole  frame  of 
nature,  and  put  an  end  to  decay,  disease,  and  death." 

The  following  sayings  may  be  found  scattered  through 
the  writings  of  Plato  : 

"  The  soul,  withdi-awn  from  the  influence  of  the  Muses 
and  Gi-aces,  sinks  into  disorder,  loses  its  moral  harmony, 
and  often  requires  the  aid  of  music  to  attune  its  jarring 
strings." 

"  To  say  that  the  gods  are  easily  ai)peased,  is  to  comi)are 
them  to  dogs  or  wolves,  which  arc  })aciricd  by  giving  them 
a  portion  of  the  pi  .;.nder." 

"  The  divine  race  of  stars  must  be  considered  as  celestial 
creatures,  with  most  beautiful  bodies  and  happy  souls. 
That  they  have  souls,  is  evident  from  the  regularity  of  their 
motions." 

"All  see  tlic  body  of  the  sun;  but  the  Soul,  that  ani- 


GKEECE   AND   ROME.  869 

mates  it,  is  not  tlie  object  of  any  of  our  senses;  it  is  per- 
ceived by  tlie  mind  oidy." 

"It  is  impossible  that  there  should  be  nnich  happiness  in 
this  life ;  but  there  is  great  hope,  that  after  death  every 
person  may  obtain  the  things  he  most  wishes  for.  This  is 
not  new,  but  is  known  both  to  Greeks  and  barbarians." 

"The  universe  belongs  to  the  Deity,  and  he  will  not 
neglect  what  is  his  own.  lie  cannot  be  called  a  wise  phy- 
sician who  only  attends  to  the  body  in  general,  and  not  to 
particular  parts.  Nor  do  governors  of  cities,  or  masters 
of  families,  neglect  small  things.  Let  us  not  then  suppose 
that  God,  who  is  wisest  of  all,  is  less  wise  than  men.  He 
is  the  Shepherd  of  mankind,  taking  the  same  care  of  them 
that  a  shepherd  does  of  his  sheep  and  oxen.  He  provides 
for  all  things,  the  smallest  as  well  as  the  greatest." 

"  He  is  the  Architect  of  the  World,  the  Father  of  the 
Universe,  the  Creator  of  Nature,  the  Sovereign  Beauty, 
and  the  Supreme  Good,  the  Ruling  Mind,  which  orders 
all  things,  and  penetrates  all  things." 

*•  He  made  the  heavens,  the  earth,  and  the  gods.  He  is 
the  original  life  and  force  of  all  things  in  the  ethereal  re- 
gions, upon  the  earth  and  under  the  earth." 

"  He  is  the  Being,  the  Unity,  the  Good,  pre-eminently 
the  same  in  the  world  of  Intelligences  that  the  sun  is  in 
the  visible  world." 

"He  is  Truth,  and  Light  is  his  shadow." 

"  What  light  and  sight  are  in  this  visible  world,  truth 
and  intelligence  are  in  the  real,  unchangeable  world." 

"The  One,  better  than  intellect,  from  whom  all  things 
flow,  and  to  whom  they  all  ultimately  tend,  is  The  Good." 

"  The  end  and  aim  of  all  things  should  be  to  attain  to 
The  First  Good  ;  of  whom  the  sun  is  but  the  type,  and 
the  material  world,  witli  all  its  host  of  ministering  Spirits, 
is  but  the  manifestation  and  the  shadow." 

"  As  light  and  vision  resemble  the  sun,  but  are  not  the 
sun,  so  knowledge  and  truth  resemble  The  Good,  but  are 
not  The  Good;  which  is  itself  something  more  venerable." 

"As  nothing  is  like  the  sun,  except  through  solar  influ- 


360  PROGRESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

ences,  so  nothing  can  resemble  The  Good,  but  by  an  ema- 
nation of  his  divine  light  into  the  soul." 

"To  belike  the  Deity,  is  to  be  holy,  just,  and  wise.  This 
is  the  end  of  man's  being  born,  and  should  be  his  aim  in 
studying  philosophy." 

"  He  alone  is  truly  happy  who  has  attained  to  the  divine 
science  of  the  Deity.  To  arrive  at  tliis  state,  it  is  necessary 
to  be  convinced  that  the  body  is  a  prison,  from  which  the 
soul  must  be  released,  before  it  can  arrive  at  the  knowledge 
of  those  things  which  are  real  and  immutable." 

"  The  light  and  spirit  of  Deity  are  as  wings  to  the  soul, 
raising  it  into  communion  with  himself,  and  above  the 
earth,  with  which  the  mind  of  man  is  prone  to  bemire  it- 
self" 

"  The  soul  of  each  of  us  is  an  immortal  Spirit,  and  goes 
to  other  gods  to  give  an  account  of  its  actions." 

"Pure  souls,  who  here  below  have  sought  to  withdraw 
themselves  from  terrestrial  stains,  enter  after  death  into  an 
invisible  place,  unknown  tons,  where  the  pure  unites  itself 
to  the  pure,  and  our  immortal  essence  is  united  with  the 
Divine  Essence." 

"The  perfectly  j ust  man  would  be  he  who  should  love 
justice  for  its  own  sake,  not  for  the  honours  and  advantages 
that  attend  it;  who  would  be  willing  to  pnss  for  unjust, 
while  lie  jM^ictiscd  the  most  exact  justice;  who  would  not 
suffer  himself  to  be  moved  by  disgrace  or  distress,  but  would 
continue  steadfast  in  the  love  of  justice,  not  because  it  is 
pleasant,  but  because  it  is  right." 

"  Prayer  is  the  ardent  turning  of  the  soul  toward  God  ; 
not  to  ask  any  particular  good,  but  good  itself;  the  uni- 
versal, suiireme  good.  We  often  mistake  what  is  perni- 
cious and  dangerous  for  what  is  useful  and  desirable. 
Therefore  remain  silent  before  the  gods,  till  they  remove  the 
clouds  from  thy  eyes,  and  enable  thee  to  see,  by  tlieir  light, 
rot  what  aj)pears  good  to  thyself,  but  what  is  really  good." 

"  IJeauty  ought  to  be  loved  for  itself,  the  Source  and 
Cciitn^  of  Jill  ])cauty,  the  Creator,  lluler,  and  Preserver  of 
all   tilings,     it  has  no  .similitude  on  the  earth,  or  in  the 


GREECE   AND   HOME.  361 

heavens.  Whatever  is  beautiful,  is  so  merely  by  participa- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Beauty.  All  other  beauty  may  in- 
crease, decay,  change,  or  perish ;  but  this  is  the  same 
through  all  time,  and  in  all  places.  By  raising  our  thoughts 
above  all  inferior  beauties,  we  at  length  reach  the  Supreme 
]>eauty,  which  is  simple,  pure,  and  immutable,  without 
form,  colour,  or  human  qualities.  It  is  the  splendour  of  the 
divine  image.  It  is  the  Deity  himself.  Love  of  this  Su- 
})reme  Beauty  renders  a  man  divine.  When  the  soul  rises 
above  herself,  and  becomes  united  with  it,  she  brings  forth, 
not  the  shadows  of  virtues,  but  the  virtues  themselves.  She 
becomes  immortal,  and  the  friend  of  God.  There  is  no  one 
so  bad,  but  love  can  make  a  god  of  him  by  virtue ;  so  that 
his  soul  becomes  like  unto  the  Supreme  Beauty." 

"  Look  at  the  sun,  and  the  stars,  and  the  moon !  at  the 
earth,  with  its  changing  seasons,  and  all  its  beauties  !  Are 
they  not  in  themselves  a  power  beyond  you?  a  power 
more  grand,  more  permanent,  more  lovely,  than  anything 
you  can  create  ?  Is  not  the  very  essence  of  religion,  tlio 
acknowledgment  of  such  a  power?  The  external  world 
may  be  but  a  shadow  of  the  Deity ;  a  symbol  of  a  far  higher 
Power  beyond  it ;  a  veil  to  hide  his  presence ;  a  school  to 
lead  you  up  to  him.  But  in  itself  it  is  divine ;  therefore, 
there  is  a  Deity,  and  all  mankind  believe  it." 

"  How  can  we,  without  indignation,  reason  against  men, 
who  compel  us  to  argue,  to  prove  the  existence  of  Deity  ? 
In  infancy,  when  lying  on  the  breast,  they  used  to  hear, 
from  their  nurses  and  mothers,  stories  told  to  soothe  or  awe 
them,  and  repeated,  like  charms,  above  their  cradles.  At 
the  altar  they  heard  these  stories  blended  with  prayers,  and 
with  all  the  pomps  and  ceremonials  so  fair  to  the  eye  of 
childhood.  They  saw  those  same  parents  offering  up  their 
sacrifices  with  all  solemnity,  and  heard  them  earnestly  and 
reverently  pra3nng  for  themselves  and  their  children,  and 
with  vows  and  supplications  holding  communion  with  Deity, 
as  indeed  a  living  Spirit.  AVhen  the  sun  and  the  moon 
rose  and  set,  they  witnessed  all  around  them  the  kneeling 
or  prostrate  forms  of  both  Greeks  and  barbarians ;  all  men, 
Vol.  I.— 31  q 


362  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

in  their  joys  and  their  sorrows,  clinging  as  it  were  to  the 
Deity,  not  as  an  empty  name,  but  as  their  all  in  all ;  and 
never  suffering  the  fancy  to  intrude  that  God  has  no  exist- 
ence. If  they  have  despised  all  this,  and,  without  one  justi- 
fying cause,  would  now  compel  us  to  reason,  how  can  such 
men  expect  that  with  calm  and  gentle  words,  we  should  be 
able  to  teach  them  the  existence  of  a  Deity  ?" 

"  The  heavens,  the  stars,  the  earth,  the  souls  of  men,  the 
divine  beings  who  teach  us  the  religion  of  our  fathers,  all 
these  are  the  Deity." 

Much  has  been  said  concerning  Plato's  ideas  of  Three 
in  One,  in  the  Deity.  According  to  the  general  testimony 
of  scholars  familiar  with  his  writinsrs  in  their  original  Ian- 
guage,  allusions  of  that  kind  are  exceedingly  few,  and  very 
vague.     The  following  are  examples  : 

"God  gave  a  Mind  to  the  soul,  and  a  Soul  to  the  body, 
and  constituted  the  whole  world  after  these,  the  most  per- 
fect and  eX'^.ollent  in  Nature." 

"All  things  are  about  the  King  of  all,  and  all  things  are 
for  the  sake  of  him,  and  he  is  the  author  of  every  thing 
that  is  fair  and  good.  But  the  second  are  about  the  Sec- 
ond, and  the  third  are  about  the  Third." 

"  We  may  call  that  which  receives,  the  Mother;  that 
from  which  it  was  derived,  the  Father;  and  the  offspring 
between  them  is  Nature." 

"  The  Divine  Word  established  the  movements  of  the 
celestial  orbs." 

"God  is  the  Governor  of  all  things  that  are,  and  that  are 
to  come;  and  the  Lord  is  the  Father  of  the  Governor." 

This  dark  mode  of  expression  was,  doubtless,  intentional, 
and  was  resorted  to  either  to  veil  mysteries  forbidden  to  be 
revealed,  or  from  fear  of  collision  with  popidar  and  estab- 
lished opinions. 

Such  is  a  very  imj)erfect  sketch  of  the  elevated  philo- 
soj)hy  of  Plato.  Ideas  derived  from  ancient  sources  became 
gloriously  transfigured  in  the  light  of  his  jioetic  mind,  and 
infci-jor  natures  cannot  give  a  ti'ue  rellcction  of  them.  The 
divine  and  indestructii)le  nature  of  the  soul  was  the  central 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  363 

point  in  liis  system.  rurific;ition  from  the  contagions  of 
animal  life,  by  the  principles  of  divine  wisdom,  he  regarded 
as  already  a  beginning  of  the  immortal  life  of  the  gods; 
and  this  inward  unity  with  celestial  natures,  he  thought 
ought  to  be  manifested  in  outward  beauty.  Therefore,  he 
loved  to  be  surrounded  by  majestic  and  graceful  statues,  to 
hear  harmonious  sounds,  to  wear  clothing  made  of  soft  and 
fine  materials,  and  to  observe  a  becoming  propriety  in  his 
words  and  actions. 

A  short  time  before  his  death,  he  is  said  to  have  dreamed 
that  he  was  changed  into  a  swan.  He  fell  gently  asleep 
among  his  friends  at  a  wedding  banquet,  a  healthy  old 
man,  on  his  eighty-first  birth-da3^  Some  of  the  Eastern 
Magi,  who  happened  to  be  at  Athens,  are  reported  to  have 
thought  it  very  significant  that  his  mortal  life  should  have 
exactly  completed  the  most  perfect  number:  nine  times 
nine.  Long  after  other  Grecian  sects  had  fallen  into  ob- 
livion, his  doctrines  kept  their  hold  upon  the  minds  of 
men,  and  they  remain  interwoven  with  much  of  the  philo- 
sophy and  theology  of  the  present  day. 

Proclus,  one  of  his  followers,  several  centuries  after  his 
death,  expresses  the  opinion  that  all  theology  among  the 
Greeks  originated  in  the  mystical  doctrines  of  Orpheus, 
lie  says:  "  What  Orpheus  delivered  in  hidden  allegories, 
Pythagoras  learned  when  he  was  initiated  into  the  Orphic 
Mysteries;  and  Plato  next  received  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  them  from  Orphic  and  Pythagorean  writings." 

All  three  of  these  men  had  been  in  Egypt  to  obtain  in- 
struction concerning  spiritual  theories.  All  their  systems 
have  the  same  outline,  and  harmonize  with  what  can  be 
gathered  from  Egyptian  monuments,  and  the  scanty  records 
that  remain  concerning  the  ancient  faith  of  that  remarkable 
people.  Plato,  therefore,  may  be  taken  as  a  sublimated 
specimen  of  Egyptian  theology  as  it  existed  in  their  high- 
est and  purest  minds.  The  resemblance  to  Hindoo  doctrines 
must  strike  every  observing  reader  who  compares  Plato's 
theories  with  the  extracts  from  the  Vedas.  Strabo,  who 
had  good  opportunities   to    become   acquainted   with    the 


36-i  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

most  prominent  ideas  prevalent  in  India,  notices  the  simi- 
larity between  them  and  the  veiled  teaching  of  Plato. 
This  adds  one  more  to  the  many  proofs  already  adduced  to 
show  that  the  religions  of  Ilindostan  and  Egypt  were  sub- 
stantially the  same. 

Aristotle,  contemporary  Avith  Plato,  was  more  prone  to 
look  outward  for  the  evidence  of  things;  being  more 
logical  than  poetic.  But  he  also  accepted  the  conclusions 
at  which  contemplative  Hindoos  had  arrived  concerning 
God  and  the  soul.  He  describes  Deity  as  "  The  Eternal 
Living  Being,  most  noble  of  all  beings ;  distinct  from 
Matter,  without  extension,  Avithout  division,  Avithout  parts, 
and  Avithout  succession  ;  Avho  understands  everj^thing,  and 
continuing  himself  immoveable,  gives  motion  to  all  things, 
and  enjoys  in  himself  a  perfect  happiness,  knowing  and 
contemplating  himself  with  infinite  pleasure."  "  There 
are  many  inferior  deities,  but  only  One  Mover.  All  that 
is  said  about  the  human  shape  of  those  deities  is  mere  fic- 
tion, invented  to  instruct  the  common  people,  and  secure 
their  observance  of  good  laAvs.  The  First  Principle  is 
neither  fire,  nor  earth,  nor  Avater,  nor  anything  that  is  the 
object  of  sense.  A  Spiritual  Substance  is  the  cause  of  the 
universe,  and  the  source  of  all  order,  all  beauty,  all  the 
motions,  and  all  the  forms,  which  Ave  so  much  admire  in  it. 
All  must  be  reduced  to  this  One  Primitive  Substance, 
Avhich  governs  in  subordination  to  the  First."  "  There  is 
One  Supreme  Intelligence,  who  acts  with  order,  proportion, 
and  design ;  the  source  of  all  that  is  good  and  just." 

"  This  is  the  genuine  doctrine  of  the  ancients,  which  has 
hap[)ily  escaped  the  Avreck  of  truth,  amid  the  rocks  of 
vulgar  errors  and  poetic  fables." 

"  After  death,  the  soul  continueth  in  the  aerial  body  till 
it  is  entirely  purged  from  all  angry  and  voluptuous  j)as- 
sion  ;  then  doth  it  put  off,  by  a  second  death,  the  aerial 
body  as  it  did  the  terrestrial.  Wlierefore  the  ancients  say 
tiierc  is  another  heavenly  body  always  joined  Avith  the 
soul,  which  is  immortal,  luminous,  and  star-like." 

'J'his  "  aerial  body"  nienlioued  by  Aristotle,  is  the  samo 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  865 

as  llie  "sensuous  soul"  described  by  Plato.  It  was  this 
which  seems  to  have  been  the  "sAarfe"  of  Hercules  in  the 
Elysian  Fields,  while  his  soul  was  on  Olympus  with  the 
gods.  The  "  sensuous  soul"  was  the  seat  of  the  passions 
and  sensations.  The  ancients  supposed  that  this  subtile 
vehicle  of  the  "rational  soul"  exercised  all  the  functions 
of  sense,  in  every  part  of  it ;  that  it  was  "  all  eye,  all  ear, 
all  taste." 

Cicero,  the  Roman  orator,  who  died  forty-three  years 
before  Christ,  was  so  great  an  admirer  of  Plato,  that  he 
was  accustomed  to  call  liim  "  a  god  among  philosophers." 
Like  his  Grecian  model,  he  conformed  to  the  religious  in- 
stitutions of  the  country,  and  sincerely  believed  in  the 
divine  origin  of  prophecy ;  but  he  attacked  several  of  the 
popular  opinions  of  his  time  with  so  much  boldness,  that 
many  thought  his  works  ought  to  be  suppressed.  He  be- 
lieved in  One  Supreme  God,  who  controls  the  universe,  as 
the  human  soul  controls  the  body.  He  rejected  the  idea 
of  anything  vindictive  in  the  future  punishment  of  the 
wicked,  considering  it  a  blasphemy  against  Deity  to  sup- 
pose him  capable  of  anger,  or  any  other  passion.  He  re- 
garded the  numerous  tutelary  deities  as  subordinate  agents 
of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  ridicuh^d  the  stories  told  of 
them  by  poets.  He  thought  all  knowledge  was  a  remi- 
niscence of  experience  obtained  in  former  states  of  being. 
The  eternal  nature  of  the  soul  seemed  to  him  fully  demon- 
strated by  its  longing  for  immortality,  its  comprehensive 
faculties,  its  recollections,  and  its  foresight.  His  writings 
were  very  extensively  known,  and  greatly  contributed  to 
raise  the  previous  standard  of  morality. 

He  says  :  "  No  man  was  ever  truly  great  without  divine 
inspiration." 

"  Whatever  name  custom  hath  given  to  the  gods,  we 
ought  to  reverence  and  adore  them.  The  best,  the  purest, 
the  most  religious  worship,  of  the  gods,  is  to  reverence  them 
always  with  a  sincere,  unpolluted,  and  perfect  mind." 

"  The  true  primeval  law  is  the  Supreme  Keason  of  the 
great  Jupiter.  It  is  eternal,  immutable,  universal.  It  does 
Vol.   I.— 31* 


366  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

not  vary  according  to  time  and  place.  It  is  not  different 
now  from  what  it  was  formerly.  The  same  law  sways  all 
nations,  because  it  proceeds  from  the  King  and  common 
Father  of  all.  A  crime  is  none  the  less  criminal  because 
there  is  no  human  law  against  it.  The  law  imprinted  on 
the  hearts  of  all  men  is  to  love  the  members  of  society  as 
themselves.  Love  of  order  is  the  sovereign  justice,  and 
this  justice  is  excellent  for  its  own  sake.  Whoever  loves 
it  for  its  utility,  is  politic,  but  not  good.  The  highest  in- 
justice is  to  love  justice  only  for  the  sake  of  recompense. 
The  eternal,  unchangeable,  universal  law  of  all  beings  is 
to  seek  the  good  of  one  another,  like  children  of  the  same 
Father." 

Cicero  informs  us  that  philosophers  of  all  schools  agreed 
in  believing  the  Supreme  Deity  incapable  of  inflicting  pun- 
ishment, or  feeling  resentment;  that  anger  toward  one,  and 
favour  toward  another,  were  equally  inconsistent  with  an 
immortal,  wise,  and  happy  nature.  Therefore,  they  all 
agreed  that  fear  could  have  no  place  in  the  mind  of  man 
with  regard  to  God. 

Like  Plato,  he  was  very  conservative  with  regard  to 
established  forms,  regarding  them  as  necessary  for  the  pre- 
servation of  good  order.  He  says:  "When  religion  is  in 
question,  I  do  not  consider  what  is  the  doctrine  thereon  of 
Zeno,  Cleanthes,  or  Chrysippus,  but  I  am  guided  by  what 
the  Chief  Priests  say  of  it.  From  you,  who  are  a  philoso- 
pher, I  am  not  unwilling  to  receive  reasons  for  my  faith  ; 
but  to  our  ancestors  I  trust  implicitly,  Avithout  receiving 
any  reason  at  all." 

]Ie  thought  those  who  disturbed  popular  belief  in  the 
auguries  ought  to  be  punished.  For  that  reason  he  entered 
a  complaint  against  two  men  who  sailed  contrary  to  the 
auspices;  because,  according  to  his  views,  the  established 
"religion  is  to  be  obc^ycd,  and  the  customs  of  our  foi'e- 
fathers  arc  not  to  be  discaidcd." 

The  Stoics,  (bunded  by  Zcno,  about  three  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  had  numerous  adherents,  especially  among 
the  Uoniaiis,  to  whose  st<'ru  and  lolly  ehai'acter  their  doc- 


GREECE   AND   ROME.  367 

trines  were  well  adapted.  They  explained  virtue  as  the 
true  harmony  of  man  with  himself,  and  with  the  laws  of 
nature,  without  regard  to  reward  or  punishment.  This 
state  was  to  be  attained  by  mastery  over  the  passions 
and  affections,  and  complete  indifference  to  external  things. 
Self-denial  and  resolute  endurance  were  prominent  points 
in  their  moral  teaching.  They  were  characterized  ly 
abstemiousness,  plainness  of  dre.ss,  and  strict  regard  to 
decorum.  They  held  that  a  man  was  at  liberty  to  lay 
down  his  life  whenever  he  deemed  it  no  longer  useful. 
Zeno,  and  others  of  their  teachers,  committed  suicide  in 
old  age.  They  believed  the  universe  was  pervaded  by  a 
Divine  Intelligence,  as  by  a  soul.  The  elements  and  the 
heavenly  orbs  partook  of  this  divine  essence,  and  were 
therefore  suitable  objects  of  worship.  They  did  not  adopt 
the  common  doctrine  of  successive  transmigrations  of  the 
human  soul,  but  held  that  it  returned  to  the  Supreme  Soul, 
after  death.  Epictctus  says :  "  There  is  no  Tartarus.  You 
do  not  go  to  a  place  of  pain.  You  return  to  the  source 
from  which  you  came,  to  a  delightful  reunion  with  A'our 
primitive  elements."  They  were  taught  not  to  deprecate 
impending  calamities,  but  to  pray  for  resignation  and  forti- 
tude to  endure  them.  Marcus  Antoninus  says:  "Either 
the  gods  have  power,  or  no  power.  If  they  have  no  power, 
why  do  you  pray?  If  they  have  power,  why  do  you  not 
rather  pray  that  you  may  be  without  anxiety  about  an 
event,  than  that  the  event  may  not  take  place?" 

In  common  with  many  of  the  Grecian  sects,  they  believed 
in  the  old  Hindoo,  Chaldean,  and  Egyptian  calculations 
concerning  the  destruction  of  the  world  by  water  and  by 
fire.  This  universal  devastation  was  to  take  place  at  stated 
intervals,  with  vast  astronomical  intervals  between.  All 
was  to  be  restored  to  a  state  of  order,  innocence,  and 
beauty ;  the  old  tendency  to  degeneracy  would  end  in 
similar  destruction,  to  be  again  renovated;  and  so  on  alter- 
nately for^ever.  Seneca  says:  "A  time  will  come  when 
the  world,  ripe  for  renovation,  will  be  wrapi)ed  in  flames: 
when  the  opposite  powers  in  conflict  will  mutually  destroy 


868  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

each  otlier.  The  constellations  will  dash  together,  and  tlie 
whole  universe,  plunged  in  the  same  common  fire,  will  bo 
consumed  to  ashes.  The  world  being  melted  and  re 
entered  into  the  bosom  of  Jupiter,  this  god  will  continue 
for  some  time  concentred  in  himself,  immersed  in  the 
contemplation  of  his  own  ideas.  Afterward,  a  new  world 
Avill  spring  from  him,  perfect  in  all  its  parts.  The  whole 
fece  of  nature  will  be  more  lovely;  and  under  more 
favourable  auspices,  an  innocent  race  of  men  will  people 
this  earth,  the  worthy  abode  of  virtue." 

The  2'eligious  doctrines  and  customs  of  Greece  were 
adopted  by  Rome  without  essential  alterations.  Sometliing 
of  their  Q;racefulncs3  was  lost  under  the  influence  of  her 
less  poetic  character,  but  a  stronger  moral  element  was  in- 
fused. In  the  days  of  the  Roman  Republic,  temples  were 
erected  to  Concord,  Faith,  Constancy,  Modesty,  and  even 
to  Peace.  Venus  Yerticordia  presided  over  the  purity  of 
domestic  morals,  and  the  most  virtuous  woman  in  Rome 
was  chosen  to  dedicate  her  statue.  Religion  was  intimately 
connected  with  the  state.  The  Emperor  was  the  Supreme 
Pontiff;  and  High  Priests  were  chosen  among  the  most 
illustrious  senators.  The  priests,  both  of  the  city  and  the 
provinces,  were  mostly  men  of  wealth  and  rank,  who  re- 
ceived, as  an  honourable  distinction,  the  care  of  some 
celebrated  temple,  or  some  public  sacrifice,  or  the  sacred 
games,  which  were  frequently  exhibited  at  their  own  ex- 
pense. They  acted  as  magistrates,  and  claimed  none  of 
the  peculiar  sacredness  which  so  strongly  riveted  the 
power  of  Hindoo  and  Egyptian  priests. 

Numa,  second  king  of  Rome,  forbade  the  people  to  put 
images  or  pictures  in  their  temples;  giving  as  a  reason  that 
God  was  to  be  apprehended  only  by  the  mind,  and  it  was 
wrong  to  represent  the  most  excellent  being  by  such  mean 
things.  For  one  hundred  and  sixty  years,  their  temples 
contained  neither  statues  nor  paintings.  It  was  the  })()licy 
of  government  to  exclude  foreign  worship,  and  .for  a  time 
they  tried  to  enforce  it  rigidly.  But  Rome,  being  the  cen- 
tre of  power,  was  the  point  of  confluence  for  all  nations  of 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  369 

the  earth,  and  it  became  necessary  to  allow  foreign  resi- 
dents and  visitors  the  practice  of  their  own  religious  rites. 
This  toleration  was  easily  granted,  because  it  was  a  common 
opinion  among  polytheistic  nations  that  every  country  had 
the  religion  best  suited  to  its  climate  and  character,  and 
that  the  deity  it  worshipped,  whoever  he  might  be,  was  one 
of  many  beneficent  Spirits,  appointed  to  preside  over  vari- 
ous divisions  of  the  earth,  and  manifold  departments  of  tiie 
universe.  From  Egypt,  Carthage,  Gaul,  Persia,  and  nu- 
merous other  countries,  the  conquering  armies  of  Rome 
brought  back  foreign  customs  and  opinions  with  the  spoils 
of  war.  The  popular  feeling  in  favour  of  adding  the  gods 
of  other  nations  to  their  own  established  worship  became 
too  strong  for  the  policy  of  government  or  the  wisdom  of 
sages  to  resist.  The  worship  of  Serapis  was  first  celebra- 
ted in  private  chapels  at  Rome,  then  publicly  prohibited; 
the  first  temples  erected  to  him  were  ordered  to  be  des- 
troyed;  afterward,  it  was  permitted  to  build  them  within  a 
mile  of  the  city;  and  at  last  he  was  formally  acknowledged 
and  established  among  the  deities.  The  Persian  Mithras 
was  enrolled  in  the  same  calendar.  The  Magi,  resident  in 
Rome,  introduced  his  Mysteries,  which  were  solemnized  in 
a  cave.  In  the  process  of  initiation,  candidates  were  sub- 
jected to  severe  ordeals,  such  as  long  fasts  in  solitude  and 
darkness,  passing  through  deep  waters  and  through  fire.  It 
is  said  that  one  of  the  ceremonies  of  admission  was  to  eat 
bread  and  drink  wine,  and  to  receive  the  mark  of  a  Cross 
on  the  forehead  ;  probably  the  Hindoo  and  Egyptian  Cross, 
already  described.  When  the  Jews  became  tributary  to 
Rome,  they  were  protected  in  their  own  forms  of  worship  ; 
it  being  readily  admitted  that  Jehovah  might  be  a  true  na- 
tional deity,  though  not  the  only  Governor  of  the  Universe. 
Solemn  embassies  were  sent  to  invite  Cybele  from  Phry- 
gia,  and  J^^sculapius  from  Greece.  The  image  of  Astarte 
v/as  brought  from  Carthage  to  Rome,  to  be  married  to  the 
image  of  the  Sun  ;  and  the  day  of  their  mystic  nuptials  was 
kept  as  a  festival  throughout  the  empire.  ■  It  was  a  com. 
rnon  custom  to  tempt  the  deities  of  besieged  cities,   by 


870  PKOGRESS    OF    KEUGJOL'S    IDEAS. 

promising  them  more  distingaished  honours  in  Rome  than 
they  received  in  their  own  country. 

Roman  priests,  as  well  as  those  of  Ilindostan,  were  ac- 
quainted with  a  chemical  process,  which  enabiCd  them  to 
resist  fire.  Strabo  says  that  many  persons,  every  year, 
walked  barefoot  over  burning  coals  without  receiving  the 
slightest  injury,  and  crowds  assembled  to  see  it.  The  more 
rational  citizens  of  Rome  strongly  disapproved  of  nocturnal 
assemblies,  as  occasions  for  revelry  and  licentiousness,  un- 
der the  disguise  of  religion.  They  discountenanced  the 
impure  rites  practised  in  temples  of  Venus,  and  the  mad 
orgies  connected  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus ;  and  at  last 
their  influence  so  far  prevailed,  that  the  festivals  of  Bac- 
chus were  prohibited  by  law. 

Rome  was  the  great  gathering-place  for  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  To  the  general  admixture  of  religious  forms 
and  creeds  was  added  almost  unlimited  freedom  of  inquiry 
in  the  philosophical  schools.  The  ceremonies  consecrated 
by  long  established  custom  were  observed  for  reasons  of 
state,  and  to  satisfy  the  requisitions  of  the  populace  ;  but 
they  gradually  degenerated  into  mere  lifeless  forms.  Cicero 
argues  that  it  was  impossible  the  oracle  at  Delphi  could 
have  gained  so  much  reputation  in  the  world,  and  been 
enriched  with  such  costly  presents  from  almost  all  kings 
and  nations,  had  not  the  veracity  of  its  prophecies  been 
confirmed  by  the  experience  of  ages.  But  he  informs  us 
that  it  had  declined  very  much  before  his  day ;  the  Pythia 
being  often  accused  of  taking  bribes  of  the  rich  and  power- 
ful. 

A  bi'licf  iu  the  existence  of  the  soul  after  death  was  indi- 
cated in  all  j)eriods  of  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome,  by 
the  fact  that  they  were  always  accustomed  to  address  prayers 
to  the  Spirits  of  their  ancestors,  Avhen  overwhelmed  with 
trouble,  or  about  to  undertake  any  important  enterprise. 
'J'hey  likewise  offered  sacrifices  for  the  benefit  of  the  dead, 
and  i)erformed  such  games  at  their  tombs  as  they  most 
(l(;lighted  in  while  living  on  this  earth.  But  though  they 
tlius  implied  a  belief  that  spirits  of  the  departed  were  pres- 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  371 

ent,  and  took  cognizance  of  the  affairs  of  this  world,  their 
writers  never  urged  the  rewards  of  another  life  as  induce- 
ments to  vii'tue,  or  its  punishments  as  furnishing  motives 
to  avoid  crime.  'JHiey  inculcated  a  stoical  resignation  to 
the  will  of  the  gods,  and  reconciled  themselves  to  death 
because  mortals  were  thus  released  from  the  calamities  of 
this  world. 

In  the  latter  times  of  Greece  and  Home,  educated  minds 
retained  very  little  belief  in  the  popular  forms  of  theology. 
Philosophers  had  long  risen  above  them  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  One  Supreme  Mind,  and  poets  had  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  play  with  them  as  mere  graceful  fancies.  Still  the 
idea  prevailed  that  fables  were  necessary  for  the  populace. 
Strabo  says :  "  It  is  im]x)ssible  to  govern  a  mob  of  women, 
or  the  whole  mixed  multitude,  and  to  exhort  them  to  piety, 
holiness,  and  faith,  by  philosophic  reasoning.  We  must 
also  employ  superstition,  with  its  fables  and  prodigies. 
The  thunder,  the  aegis,  the  trident,  the  serpents,  the  torches, 
the  thyrsi  of  the  gods,  are  fables,  bugbears  to  those  who  are 
children  in  understanding;  as  is  all  the  ancient  theology." 

Cicero  represents  an  Epicurean  as  sa}- ing :  "  It  is  mar- 
vellous how  one  of  the  Augurs  can  look  another  in  the 
face  without  laughing." 

Plutarch  thus  describes  a  philosopher  of  the  same  school : 
"  lie  hypocritically  enacts  prayer  and  adoration,  from  fear 
of  the  enemy.  He  utters  words  directly  opposite  to  his 
philosophy.  While  he  is  sacrificing,  the  ministering  priest 
seems  to  him  no  more  than  a  cook ;  and  he  departs,  utter- 
ing the  line  of  Menander:  'I  have  sacrificed  to  gods  in 
whom  I  have  no  concern.'" 

Juvenal  tells  us  that  poets  indulged  their  imagination  to 
such  a  degree  concerning  future  rewards  and  punishments, 
that  even  the  Roman  children  ceased  to  believe  them. 


"The  silent  realm  of  disenibodieil  gliosts, 
The  frogs  that  croak  along  the  Stygian  coasts, 
The  thousand  souls  in  one  crazed  vessel  steered, 
Not  hoys  believe — save  boys  without  a  beard." 


372  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOL'S   IDEAS. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  in  the  opening  of  his  Natural  His- 
tory, speaks  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  as  an  idle  notion, 
a  mere  vision  of  human  pride;  equally  absurd  whether 
under  the  form  of  transmigration,  or  that  of  existence  in 
another  sphere. 

The  custom  of  deifying  great  nien  was  carried  to  such 
an  extent,  that  it  became  a  regular  custom  for  the  Roman 
senate  to  decree  divine  honours  to  every  emperor,  after 
death,  without  reference  to  character.  Vespasian,  being 
ill,  said  jestingly :  "  I  am  a  god,  or  at  least  not  far  from  it." 
All  the  old  forms  were  occasionally  a  theme  for  mirth  or 
satire,  except  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  Down  to  the 
latest  period  of  their  religion,  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
alwaj^s  approached  that  subject  with  the  deepest  rever- 
ence. 

The  declining  oracles  continued  to  be  occasionally  con- 
sulted till  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  when  the  Roman 
emperors  became  converts  to  Christianity.  The  oracles 
were  soon  after  silenced,  the  order  of  Vestals  abolished, 
the  sacred  fire  extinguished,  and  most  of  the  temples  de- 
stroyed. 

Thus  passed  away  from  the  fi\ce  of  our  earth  the  beau- 
tiful pageantry  of  a  religion  which  for  more  than  two 
thousand  years  had  expressecl  the  aspirations  of  the  human 
soul  in  its  search  after  the  infinite  unknown.  Its  solemn 
train  of  priests  and  prophets  disappeared;  its  voice  of 
prayer  and  music  no  longer  descended  from  the  mountain 
tops,  or  rose  in  swelling  chorus  from  processions  winding 
through  the  valleys.  But  such  truth  as  there  was  in  it 
fell  into  the  bosom  of  philoso|)hy,  and  brought  forth  flow- 
ers, which  still  cast  their  seed  into  the  future.  Even  its 
allegories  linger  in  our  literature,  like  the  illustrious  shad- 
ows in  their  own  Elysian  Fields.  School-boys  of  every 
nation  are  familiar  with  the  Grecian  gods;  Cupid  rides  on 
roses  in  our  Valentines;  Diana  holds  our  lamps;  the 
Italian  peasant  still  swears  by  Bacchus;  and  the  American 
poet  of  yesterday  invokes  the  Muses. 


ci:ltic  tribes.  373 


THE    CELTIC    TRIBES. 

Yet  shall  it  claim  our  reverence,  that  to  God 

These  jealous  ministers  of  law  aspire, 

As  to  the  One  sole  P'ouiit,  whence  wisdom  flowed ; 

And  yon  thick  woods  maintain  that  primal  truth, 

Debased  by  many  a  superstitious  form, 

That  fills  tlie  soul  witli  unavailing  rutli. 

Wo  rj)s  WORTH. 

There  was  a  country  in  Asia  called  Scytliia,  the  boun- 
daries of  which  are  extremely  uncertain.  Tribes  migrated 
thence,  and  gradually  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  Eu- 
rope. They  bore  a  variety  of  names  in  different  places; 
but  those  who  settled  in  the  countries  now  called  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain,  were  known  by  the 
general  appellation  of  the  Celtic  tribes. 

The  religious  doctrines  of  the  Celts  were  known  only  to 
the  priests,  who  never  allowed  them  to  be  committed  to 
writing.  Therefore  we  have  only  slight  information  con- 
cerning them,  obtained  from  Komans  who  came  in  contact 
with  those  nations  by  conquest.  Tacitus  says  the  ancient 
Germans,  called  Teutones,  believed  in  the  existence  of 
One  Supreme  Being,  to  whom  all  things  were  obedient. 
The  whole  universe  was  animated  by  this  Divinity,  por- 
tions of  whom  resided  in  all  things.  For  this  reason,  they 
worshipped  sun,  moon,  stars,  earth,  and  water.  They  kept 
a  sacred  fire  burning  in  their  forests,  and  had  a  religious 
festival,  during  which  they  universally  lighted  great  fires. 
Tacitus  says :  "  They  suppose  Hertha,  or  Mother  Earth,  to 
interfere  in  the  affairs  of  men,  and  visit  different  nations. 
In  an  island  of  the  ocean  stands  a  sacred  and  unviolated 
grove,  in  which  is  a  consecrated  chariot,  covered  with  a 
veil,  which  the  priest  alone  is  permitted  to  touch.  lie 
Vol.   I.— 82 


374.  riiOGiiEss  of  kkligious  ideas, 

perceives  when  the  goddess  enters  tliis  secret  recess;  and 
witli  profound  veneration  he  attends  the  vehicle,  which  is 
drawn  by  yoked  cow^s.  At  this  season  all  is  joy.  Every 
place  which  the  goddess  deigns  to  visit  is  a  scene  of  fes- 
tivity. No  wars  are  undertaken ;  every  hostile  weapon  is 
laid  aside.  Then  only  are  peace  and  repose  known,  then 
only  are  they  loved.  After  a  time  the  same  priest  recon- 
ducts the  goddess  to  her  temple,  satisfied  with  mortal 
intercourse.  The  chariot  and  its  covering,  and,  if  we  may 
believe  it,  the  goddess  herself,  then  undergo  ablution  in  a 
secret  lake.  This  office  is  performed  by  slaves,  whom  the 
lake  instantl}^  swallows  up.  Hence  proceeds  a  mysterious 
horror,  and  a  holy  ignorance  of  what  that  can  be,  wliich 
is  beheld  only  by  those  who  are  about  to  perish," 

The  ancient  Germans  worshipped  a  deity  called  Tuisco, 
or  Teut,  from  whom  they  derived  their  name,  Teutones. 
Their  traditions  affirmed  that  Tuisco  produced  mankind  by 
marrying  Hertha,  or  the  Earth  ;  which  of  course  had  an  al- 
legorical meaning  concerning  the  union  of  Spirit  and  Mat- 
ter, The  image  of  a  woman  with  a  child  in  her  arms  was 
common  in  their  consecrated  forests,  and  was  held  pecu- 
liarly sacred.  They  had  magnificent  religious  processions 
in  honour  of  the  sun,  and  greeted  the  New  Moon  and  the 
Full  Moon  with  torchlight  processions. 

They  held  the  river  lihine  in  great  veneration,  and  threw 
rich  gifts,  sometimes  silver  and  gold,  into- rivers  and  lakes, 
as  an  oficring  to  the  deity  presiding  over  waters.  They 
believed  in  a  multitude?  of  Spirits,  gliding  about  every- 
where, and  animating  all  things,  great  and  small.  Among 
these  were  the  elves,  some  good  and  some  evil.  One  of 
them  delighted  in  producing  the  nightmare  ;  others  caused 
various  diseases  and  inconveniences. 

The  Celtic  priests  were  called  Druids  ;  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  a  word  meaning  an  oak,  because  they  wor- 
shipped in  groves  of  oak.  Greek  and  Roman  writers  be- 
lieved ihem  to  have  been  a  very  ancient  order,  a  branch  of 
the  ('haldean  Magi,  or  Hindoo  Bramins.  It  is  recorded  by 
several  authors  that  they  made  their  appearance  in  Europe, 


CELTIC   TRIBES.  6tD 

from  eastern  parts  of  the  world,  soon  after  the  time  of 
Abraham.  JuHiis  Cicsar,  who  was  a  close  observer  of  the 
nations  he  conquered,  says  they  believed  in  the  immortal- 
ity of  the  soul,  and  its  transmigration  into  different  bodies. 
Tlieir  austere  lives,  in  the  solitude  of  mighty  forests,  im- 
pressed even  him  with  awe.  They  were  a  distinct  heredi- 
tary caste,  and  elected  their  own  chief,  who  retained  his 
office  during  life.  Tlieir  employments  divided  them  into 
three  classes.  Bards,  who  chanted  hymns  to  the  gods,  and 
sang  the  praises  of  heroes,  to  the  accompaniment  of  the 
lyre;  another  class,  who  decided  judicial  questions,  and  at- 
tended to  the  education  of  youth;  and  a  still  higher  order, 
who  superintended  religious  ceremonies  and  magical  rites. 
All  things  appertaining  to  worship  were  intrusted  solely  to 
them.  They  alone  were  exempted  from  taxes  and  military 
duty.  They  administered  justice,  and  pronounced  decrees 
of  reward  and  punishment.  The  power  of  striking  and 
binding  criminals,  and  of  inflicting  the  penalties  they  had 
decreed,  was  vested  in  them.  No  important  enterprise  was 
undertaken  till  the  prophets  among  them  had  been  con- 
sulted. In  all  cities  they  appointed  the  highest  oflicers, 
who  never  ventured  to  do  anything  without  their  advice. 
If  any  one  refused  to  submit  to  their  ordinances,  they  pub- 
licly excommunicated  him  from  all  share  in  sacrifices  and 
worship,  and  declared  him  to  be  henceforth  one  of  the  pro- 
fane. B}^  this  process,  he  was  rendered  incapable  of  hold- 
ing any  honourable  office,  and  was  deprived  of  the  benefit 
of  the  laws  in  questions  of  property.  Such  persons  were 
deemed  so  intamous,  that  their  most  intimate  friends  did 
not  dare  to  talk  with  them,  even  at  a  distance,  for  fear  of 
being  infected  with  the  terrible  curse  that  rested  upon  them. 
Sometimes  the  Druids  pronounced  solemn  maledictions 
against  a  whole  city  or  nation  ;  and  this  was  dreaded  as  a 
great  public  calamity.  They  studied  the  course  of  the 
stars,  and  predicted  future  events  from  their  motions.  Such 
knowledge  as  there  was  of  medicine  was  confined  to  them. 
They  had  various  magical  rites  for  casting  out  Evil  Spirits 
and  imparting  mysterious  power  to  plants  and  minerals. 


876  TROGRESS   OF   RELICxIOUS   IDEAS. 

The  oak  was  to  them  the  most  sacred  of  all  trees.  On  oc- 
casions of  solemn  ceremony  they  always  crowned  them» 
selves  with  garlands  of  its  leaves.  The  mistletoe,  a  para- 
sitic plant,  which  takes  root  in  the  trunk  of  oaks,  they  re- 
garded with  peculiar  veneration,  and  believed  it  to  be  a 
panacea  for  all  the  diseases  of  mankind.  They  always  cut 
it  with  a  golden  knife.  Black  hellebore  was  another  I'emedy 
much  in  use  among  them.  None  but  Druids  might  gather 
it,  and  they  must  be  sure  to  go  barefooted,  dressed  in  white. 
Before  they  plucked  the  sacred  plant,  they  offered  oblations 
of  bread  and  wine,  and  covered  the  right  hand  with  their 
robe.  It  was  considered  extremely  efficacious  to  rub  dis- 
eased people  with  juice  of  vervain.  Sprinklings  of  it,  ac- 
companied by  prayers,  were  supposed  to  reconcile  hearts  at 
enmity,  and  make  the  melancholy  cheerful.  They  were 
careful  to  gather  the  herb  at  the  rising  of  Sirius,  or  of  the 
sun.  The  Lunaria,  or  Moon-Plant,  was  gathered  only  when 
the  moon  shone  on  it.  Plindoo  Sacred  Books  make  rever- 
ent allusions  to  a  Moon-Plant.  Indeed  the  general  resem- 
blance between  the  Celtic  and  Hindoo  religions  is  observ- 
able. 

The  Druids  had  schools  in  the  forest,  where  3^ouths  com- 
mitted to  memory  certain  maxims  in  verse,  inculcating  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  bravery  in  battle,  respect  to  the  chas- 
tity of  women,  and  implicit  obedience  to  Druids,  magis- 
trates, and  parents.  These  verses  sometimes  contained  al- 
legorical meaning,  which  was  explained,  under  an  oath  of 
secresy,  to  those  educated  for  the  higher  orders  of  the  priest- 
hood. It  was  not  allowable  to  commit  them  to  writing ; 
and  even  if  they  had  been  written,  few  could  have  spelled 
them  out;  for  princes  and  warriors  in  those  days  did  not 
know  how  to  sign  their  names,  and  labouring  people  were 
almost  in  the  condition  of  animals.  The  Druids  were  in 
full  power  in  Gaul  and  Britain  at  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar's 
conquests,  half  a  century  before  Christ.  Our  English  an- 
cestors at  that  })eriod  lived  in  huts  and  covered  themselves 
with  skins  of  beasts. 

Women  performed  an  impoilant  part  in  the  Druidical 


CELTIC   TRIBES.  377 

religion.  The  highest  order  of  priestesses  were  vowed  to 
perpetual  celibac}'-,  and  lived  in  consecrated  places.  A 
second  order  were  allowed  to  live  with  their  husbands  on 
certain  days,  when  their  services  were  not  wanted  in  re- 
ligious ceremonies ;  some  say  it  was  only  one  day  in  the 
year.  A  third  order,  attendants  upon  the  others,  resided 
Avith  their  families,  and  reared  children  for  the  priesthood. 
Among  Asiatic  nations,  voluptuousness  is  the  only  feeling 
excited  by  women  ;  and  the  female  character  is  conse- 
quently feeble  and  shallow.  Never  allowed  to  think  or 
act  for  themselves,  the  intellectual  and  high  moral  qualities 
of  human  nature  slumber  in  complete  inaction.  The  cus- 
toms of  Celtic  tribes  in  Europe  were  remarkably  the  re- 
verse of  this.  ]\Ien  were  themselves  in  a  rude  and  barba- 
rous condition,  but  such  as  it  was,  women  were  on  the  same 
level.  Both  sexes  held  consultation  together  in  councils 
of  state,  and  fought  in  battle  with  equal  bravery.  Among 
the  Teutones,  women  were  the  only  physicians.  In  Asia, 
there  were  always  ten  prophets  to  one  prophetess.  But 
Celtic  nations  believed  that  women  were  endowed  with  su- 
pernatural powers  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  Tacitus  says : 
"The  Germans  suppose  some  divine  and*prophetic  quality 
resident  in  their  women,  and  are  careful  neither  to  disre- 
gard their  admonitions  nor  neglect  their  answers."  Strabo 
relates  that  the  Cimbri  were  followed  to  war  by  venerable 
gray-haired  prophelesses,  barefooted,  in  white  linen  robes, 
fastened  with  clasps  and  girdles  of  brass.  "These  go  with 
drawn  swords  through  the  camp,  strike  down  the  prisoners 
they  meet,  and  drag  them  to  a  brazen  kettle.  The  priestess 
ascends  a  platform  above  it,  cuts  the  throat  of  the  victim, 
and  from  the  manner  in  which  the  blood  flows  into  the 
vessel,  she  judges  of  future  events.  Others  tear  open  the 
bodies  of  captives  thus  butchered,  and  from  inspection  of 
the  entrails  presage  victory  to  their  own  jiarty." 

The  Druids  alone  had  power  to  determine  whose  blood 

would  be  most  acceptable  to  the  gods.     They  generally 

sacrificed   captive   enemies   or   convicted   criminals;    but 

sometimes  innocent  natives  were  chosen  for  that  purpose, 

Vo],.  I.— 32* 


373  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

and  the  dread  of  sucli  a  fate  greatly  increased  the  fear  and 
reverence  which  the  populace  entertained  toward  priests 
and  priestesses.  In  all  cases  where  the  life  of  a  man  was 
concerned,  they  supposed  the  deities  could  be  appeased 
only  by  the  life  of  a  man.  Thus,  if  one  man  had  shed  the 
blood  of  another,  his  own  must  be  shed.  If  a  man  was 
in  danger  from  desperate  illness,  or  about  to  incur  uncom- 
mon perils,  they  supposed  the  danger  was  incurred  by  sins, 
and  that  they  might  be  atoned  for  by  the  sacrifice  of  an- 
other man.  In  such  cases  they  made  vows  to  the  gods  to 
sacrifice  a  human  victim,  if  their  own  lives  were  spared  ; 
and  such  vows  they  were  religiously  bound  to  perform. 
Sometimes,  to  atone  for  national  sins,  or  avert  national 
calamities,  they  sacrificed  whole  hecatombs  of  human 
beings,  as  the  Hindoos  used  to  sacrifice  a  thousand  horses 
at  once,  and  the  Greeks  a  hundred  oxen.  On  such  occa- 
sions, they  made  a  huge  image  of  basket-work,  in  tlie  shape 
of  a  man,  and  filled  it  with  men,  women,  and  children. 
Then  they  surrounded  it  with  combustibles,  and  they  all 
perished  in  the  flames.  These  victims  were  generally  cap- 
tives and  criminals,  who  were  sometimes  reserved  for 
several  years,  till  an  occasion  occurred  to  offer  them  all  to- 
gether. The  cruelty  of  this  custom  was  softened  to  their 
own  minds  by  a  belief  that  victims  ofi:ered  to  the  gods 
were  purified  from  all  mortal  stain  by  tlie  process,  and 
raised  to  an  equality  with  superior  natures. 

It  was  the  universal  faith  that  all  events  happened  ac- 
cording to  unalterable  laws  of  destiny,  known  onl}'-  to  the 
gods,  and  revealed  by  them  to  certain  favoured  mortals. 
They  fully  believed  that  criminals  could  be  detected  by 
subjecting  suspected  persons  to  ordeals,  such  as  walking 
on  red-hot  metals,  or  plunging  the  arm  into  boiling  oil.  If 
they  were  guiltless,  people  believed  that  Good  Spirits  would 
interfere  for  their  j)rotection,  and  they  would  escape  un- 
liarmcd.  Eartliquakcs,  tempests,  and  other  convulsions 
of  nature,  were  su])posed  to  be  occasioned  by  the  death  of 
gome  great  man. 

Their  morality  was  rather  of  an  external  character,  but 


CELTIC   TRIBES,  379 

extremely  strict  in  its  laws.  Bravery  was  the  crowning 
virtue  in  men,  and  chastity  in  women.  A  high  proud 
Bense  of  personal  honour  was  tlie  restraining  principle  in 
both.  Licentiousness  was  much  detested,  and  of  rare  oc- 
currence. Plerocs,  who  died  fighting  for  their  country, 
were  perfectly  certain  of  passing  at  once  into  a  paradise  of 
eternal  joy,  whatever  might  bo  their  character  in  other 
respects.  This  belief  inspired  men  with  wild  and  furious 
courage,  and  a  reckless  contempt  of  death.  They  gave 
strong  proof  of  faith  in  a  future  existence;  for  they  fre- 
quently loaned  money  on  a  solemn  promise  that  it  should 
be  repaid  to  them  in  another  world.  It  was  likewise  com- 
mon to  put  letters  in  the  hands  of  the  dead,  with  the  fullest 
belief  that  they  would  deliver  them  to  departed  souls,  ac- 
cording to  direction.  If  people  killed  themselves,  from  a 
wish  to  accompany  deceased  friends,  it  was  supj)Osed  that 
their  souls  would  dwell  together. 

Druids  had  the  Persian  feeling  concerning  statues.  Tliey 
never  represented  the  gods  by  images.  Their  religious  cer- 
emonies were  performed  in  consecrated  caverns  and  groves 
of  the  forest.  They  supposed  such  dark  and  solemn  places 
were  the  favourite  resort  of  powerful  spirits,  from  whom 
oracular  communications  could  be  obtained  by  the  per- 
formance of  appropriate  rites.  Alilitary  standards  were 
kept  in  the  hallowed  recesses  of  these  sacred  caverns. 
When  the  Druids  delivered  them  to  warriors  going  to 
battle,  they  pronounced  terrible  imprecations  on  the  heads 
of  tlieir  enemies,  devoting  them  all  as  victims  to  Tuisco, 
god  of  war.  The  consecrated  groves  were  approached 
with  religious  awe.  Men  would  have  been  terrified  with 
fears  of  vengeance  from  offended  deities,  if  they  had  cut 
down  one  of  the  trees,  even  by  mistake.  They  hung  them 
■with  garlands  and  trophies,  and  the  remains  of  victims 
that  had  been  offered.  On  altars  among  tlie  trees  were 
placed  oblations  of  fruit,  grain,  and  flowers;  and  through 
thickly  interwoven  boughs  rose  the  smoke  of  burnt-offer- 
ings; of  men  and  animals  sacrificed  to  propitiate  the  gods. 
Celtic  nations  adopted  some  of  the  Roman  deities,  after 


880  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

they  became  a  portion  of  that  empire ;  but  they  worshipped 
them  according  to  their  ancient  foshion,  in  caverns,  or 
groves,  or  on  huge  altars  of  stone  reared  in  the  open  plain. 
Many  vestiges  of  these  old  Druidical  monuments  remain  in 
France  and  England.  On  the  island  of  Anglesea  are  the 
ruins  of  a  temple,  that  enclosed  twenty-two  acres;  and  a 
single  one  of  the  stones,  when  broken  in  pieces,  made 
twenty  cart-loads.  The  famous  ruins  at  Stonehenge,  in 
England,  are  supposed  to  have  been  an  ancient  Temple  of 
the  Sun.  The  masses  of  stone  are  so-  immense,  that  the 
neighbouring  peasantry  to  this  day  believe  they  must  have 
been  brought  together  by  agency  of  the  devil.  In  some 
places,  rocks  of  prodigious  size  are  poised  on  small  ones, 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  easily  put  in  motion, 
though  the  strength  of  a  giant  could  not  destroy  their  bal- 
ance. There  were  but  few  temples  erected  for  this  wor- 
ship, and  some  of  them  are  said  to  have  resembled  those 
of  Hindostan.  Another  proof  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of  these 
tribes  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  ancient  language  of 
Germany,  called  Teutonic,  bears  a  very  sirong  resemblance 
to  Sanscrit. 

In  the  century  preceding  the  Christian  era,  Roman  em- 
perors abolished  human  sacrifices  among  these  people,  and 
deprived  the  Druids  of  power,  on  account  of  their  danger- 
ous political  influence. 


JEW.s  331. 


JEWS. 

Jehovah  !  shapeless  Power  above  all  powers, 

Single  and  one,  tlie  omnipresent  God, 

By  vocal  utterance,  or  blaze  of  light. 

Or  cloud  of  darkness,  localized  in  heaven  ; 

On  earth  enshrined  within  the  wandering  Ark; 

Or  out  of  Zioii  thundering  from  his  throne 

Between  the  Cherubim. 

WOUDSWOUTU. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  commences  with  Abraham, 
their  most  celebrated  patriarch,  the  tenth  generation  from 
Noah.  It  is  supposed  he  was  born  in  Chahlea,  about 
two  thousand  years  before  Clirist.  lie  was  doubtless  edu- 
cated in  the  planetary  worship  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  accus- 
tomed to  adore  the  images  by  which  thc}^  represented  the 
Spirits  of  sun  and  stars.  Joshua,  addressing  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  long  after  Abraham's  da}-,  says :  "  Your  fathers 
dwelt  on  the  other  side  of  the  flood  [the  river  Euphrates] 
in  old  time;  even  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  and  the 
father  of  Nahor  ;  and  they  served  other  gods."  The  Greek 
historian,  Suidas,  asserts  that  Terah  was  a  statuary,  and 
made  images  of  the  gods  for  sale.  Among  tlie  traditions 
of  Jewish  Rabbis,  it  is  recorded  that  Terah,  having  occasion 
to  take  a  journey,  left  his  business  in  the  care  of  Abraham. 
A  man,  who  came  in,  apparently  to  purchase,  asked  Abra- 
ham how  old  he  was.  lie  replied:  "lam  fifty."  "Yet 
you  worship  an  image  made  but  yesterday !"  rejoined  the 
stranger.  These  bold  words  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
Abraham.  Some  time  after,  a  woman  brought  flour  as  an 
offering  to  the  gods;  but  Abraham,  instead  of  presenting 
the  oblation,  placed  a  hatchet  in  the  hands  of  the  largest 


882  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

image,  and  broke  all  the  others  in  pieces.  When  his  fatlicr 
returned  and  asked  the  meaning  of  this  destruction,  he  re- 
plied that  the  gods  had  quarrelled  which  should  have  an 
oblation  of  flour,  and  the  strongest  one  had  destroyed  the 
others.  "You  are  banterinor"  said  Terah :  "for  images 
have  not  sense  to  do  that."  "  Say  you  so  ?"  rejoined  Abra- 
ham;  "  then  how  absurd  it  is  to  worship  them  !" 

The  same  traditions  declare  that  Abi'aham  was  persecuted 
by  the  Chaldean  government,  on  account  of  his  intidelitj'' 
ccncerning  the  popular  gods;  that  he  was  condemned  to 
pa^s  through  fire,  but  escaped  from  the  ordeal  unharmed. 
Terah  afterward  removed  to  Haran,  in  Mesopotamia,  ac- 
companied by  children  and  grandchildren.  Abraham  was 
then  seventy  years  old.  According  to  Josephus,  historian 
of  the  Jews,  "  he  was  a  person  of  great  sagacity,  both  for 
understanding  all  things,  and  persuading  his  hearers ;  and 
not  mistaken  in  his  opinions.  For  which  reason  he  began 
to  have  higher  notions  of  virtue  than  others  had,  and  he 
determined  to  renew  and  to  change  the  opinion  all  men 
had  concerning  God.  He  was  the  first  who  ventured  to 
publish  the  idea  that  there  was  but  One  God,  the  Creator 
of  the  universe ;  that  as  to  other  god,-".,  if  they  contributed 
anything  to  the  happiness  of  men,  they  each  afforded  it  ac- 
cording to  His  appointment,  and  not  by  their  own  power. 
His  opinion  was  derived  from  the  irregular  phenomena  vis- 
ible both  at  land  and  sea,  as  well  as  those  that  happen  to 
the  sun,  moon,  and  all  the  heavenly  bodies.  If,  said  he, 
these  bodies  have  power  of  their  own,  they  would  certainly 
take  care  of  their  own  regular  motions  ;  but  since  they  do 
not  preserve  such  regularity,  they  make  it  plain  that,  so  far 
as  they  co-operate  to  our  advantage,  they  do  it  not  of  their 
own  abilities,  but  as  they  are  subservient  to  Him,  who 
commands  them,  to  whom  alone  we  ought  to  oiler  honour 
an<l  thanksgiving.  For  whicii  doctrine,  when  the  Chal- 
deans, and  other  {)coj)le  of  Mesoj)otamia,  raised  a  tumult 
against  him,  he  thought  fit  to  leave  that  country,  and  at  the 
command,  and  by  the  assistance  of  God,  he  came  and  lived 
in  the  land  of  Canaan."     Nahor,  his  brother,  remained  with 


JEW'S.  383 

his  foinily  in  Mesopotamia,  and  liis  descendants  adhered  to 
the  worship  of  images. 

Josephus  says:  "After  this,  when  fliinine  invach^d  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  Abraham  had  discovered  the  Egyp- 
tians were  in  a  flourishing  condition,  he  was  disposed  to 
go  down  to  them,  both  to  partake  of  the  plenty  they  en- 
joyed, and  to  become  an  auditor  of  their  priests,  to  know 
what  thc}^  said  concerning  the  gods;  designing  either  to 
follow  them,  if  they  had  better  notions  than  he,  or  to  con- 
vert them  into  a  better  way,  if  his  own  notions  proved  the 
truest."  lie  conversed  with  the  most  learned  among  the 
Egyptians,  and  conferred  with  various  sects,  by  whom 
"  he  was  admired  as  a  very  wise  man,  and  one  of  very 
great  sagacity." 

Among  ancient  nations  and  tribes,  it  was  a  general  cus- 
tom to  marry  very  near  relatives,  with  a  view  to  sustain 
particular  families,  by  strengthening  the  bond  between 
them.  •  According  to  the  testimony  of  Josephus,  Abraham 
married  his  own  niece;  but  in  Genesis  he  hhnself  is  re- 
corded as  saying:  "She  is  my  sister;  the  daughter  of  my 
father,  but  not  the  daughter  of  my  mother;  and  she  be- 
came my  wife."  We  are  told  he  returned  from  Egypt 
"  with  sheep  and  oxen,  he-asses  and  she-asses,  men-servants 
and  maid-servants."  Sarah,  his  wife,  being  childless,  re- 
quested him  to  take  one  of  these  bondwomen  for  a  con- 
cubine. Her  name  was  llagar,  which  signifies  a  stranger. 
She  bore  Abraham  a  son,  and  they  called  his  name  Ish- 
mael.  Sarah  at  first  loved  the  child,  as  if  it  were  her 
own ;  but  when  she  herself  gave  birth  to  a  son,  she  be- 
came jealous  of  the  older  boy,  and  dealt  hardly  with  his 
mother.  She  said,  to  her  husband  :  "  Cast  out  this  bond- 
woman and  her  son  ;  for  the  son  of  this  bondwoman  shall 
not  be  heir  with  my  son,  even  with  Isaac."  Hebrew 
Scriptures  inform  us  that  "tlie  thing  was  very  grievous  in 
Abraham's  sight,  because  of  his  son.  But  God  said, 
Hearken  unto  the  voice  of  Sarah  in  all  she  has  said  unto 
thee."  So  the  poor  stranger  from  a  foreign  land  was  sent 
forth  with  her  child  into  the  wilderness,  where  they  came 


384:  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

near  perisliing  with  thirst.  After  Sarah's  death,  Abraham 
married  Keturah,  by  whom  he  had  sons.  That  he  lilce- 
wise  had  descendants  from  mothers  whose  names  are  not 
mentioned,  is  miplied  by  the  record  in  Genesis:  "  Abraham 
gave  *S,11  that  he  had  unto  Isaac.  Unto  the  sons  of  the 
concubines,  which  Abraham  had,  he  gave  gifts,  and  sent 
them  away  from  Isaac  his  son,  unto  the  east  country,  while 
he  was  jet  alive." 

Little  is  known  concerning  the  religious  views  of  Abra- 
ham, except  his  belief  in  one  Supreme  God.  Faith  in 
subordinate  Spirits  is  implied  by  the  frequent  mention  of 
angels.  In  Hebrew,  the  word  angel  simply  means  a  mes- 
senger. The  3^oung  men  who  ate  bread  and  veal  in  Abra- 
ham's tent,  and  seized  Lot  by  the  hand  to  hurry  him  away 
from  Sodom,  appear  by  their  proceedings  to  have  been, 
mortal  messengers;  but  Josephus  calls  them  "angels  of 
God."  When  Hagar  and  Ishmacl  were  perishing  in  the 
wilderness,  it  is  said  "the  angel  of  God  called  to  her  out 
of  heaven ;"  and  when  she  raised  her  eyes,  she  perceived 
a  fountain.  On  several  occasions,  we  are  told  that  "  the 
angel  of  God  called  to  Abraham  out  of  heaven."  God 
himself  is  represented  as  talking  familiarly  with  him. 
That  he  appeared  in  some  visible  form,  seems  to  be  implied 
by  the  words:  "And  God  left  off  talking  with  him  and 
went  up  from  Abraham." 

Wherever  Abraham  sojourned,  he  erected  an  altar  and 
sacrificed  to  the  Lord.  A  heifer,  a  ram,  a  goat,  a  turtle- 
dove, and  a  young  pigeon,  are  mentioned  among  his  offer- 
ings. It  was  a  prevailing  opinion  with  ancient  nations, 
that  human  sacrifices  were  acceptable  to  the  deities,  and 
of  higher  value  than  the  sacrifice  of  animals.  That  Abra- 
ham admitted  such  an  idea,  is  implied  by  his  belief  that 
the  Divine  Being  required  him  to  sacrifice  his  gentle  and 
virtuous  son  Isaac,  then  twenty-five  years  old.  Hebrew 
Sacred  Writings,  a,s  they  have  come  down  to  us,  merely 
state  that  "  G(;d  did  tempt  Abraham,  and  said.  Take  now 
thy  son,  thine  only  son  Lsaac,  whom  thou  lovest,  and  offer 
him  for  a  burnt-ofl'criug  upon  one  of  the  mountains  I  will 


JEWS.  385 

tell  thee  of."  But  a-hen  all  was  in  readiness,  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  called  to  him  out  of  heaven,  to  say  that  his  will- 
ingness was  a  sufficient  proof  of  his  obedient  faith.  "  x\nd 
Abraham,  lifting  np  his  eyes,  saw  a  ram  caught  in  the 
thicket  by  his  horns;  and  he  offered  him  up  for  a  burnt- 
offering  instead  of  his  son."  Joseph  us  gives  a  more  am- 
plified account  of  the  transaction.  He  says:  "God  being 
desirous  to  make  an  experiment  of  Abraham's  religious 
disposition  toward  himself,  appeared  to  him,  and  enu- 
merated all  the  blessinojs  he  had  bestowed,  on  him :  how 
he  had  made  him  superior  to  all  his  enemies,  and  that  his 
son  Isaac,  who  was  a  principal  part  of  his  present  happi- 
ness, was  derived  from  him ;  and  he  said  he  required  this 
son  of  his  as  a  sacrifice  and  holy  oblation.  Accordingly, 
he  commanded  him  to  carry  him  to  Mount  Moriah,  build 
an  altar,  and  offer  him  for  a  burnt-offering  upon  it. 
Abraham,  who  thought  it  was  not  right  to  disobey  God 
in  anything,  prepared  to  follow  the  injunction.  When  it 
became  necessary  to  make  his  intentions  known  to  the 
unconscious  victim,  he  said  :  '  0  my  son,  I  poured  out  a 
vast  number  of  prayers  that  I  might  have  thee ;  and  when 
thou  wast  come  into  the  world,  I  was  greatly  solicitous  for 
everything  that  could  contribute  to  thy  support.  There 
was  nothing  wherein  I  thought  myself  happier  than  to  see 
thee  grown  up  to  man's  estate,  that  I  might  leave  thee 
successor  to  my  dominions.  It  was  by  God's  will  that  I 
became  thy  father,  and  since  it  is  now  his  will  that  I 
should  relinquish  thee,  bear  this  consecration  to  God  with 
a  generous  mind.  I  resign  thee  up  to  God,  who  has 
thought  fit  to  require  this  testimony  of  honour  to  himself, 
on  accomit  of  the  favours  he  has  conferred  on  me,  in  being 
to  me  a  supporter  and  defender.  Accordingly,  thou,  my 
son,  will  now  die,  not  in  any  common  way  of  going  out 
of  the  world,  but  sent  beforehand  to  God,  the  Father  of 
all  men,  by  thy  own  father,  in  the  nature  of  a  sacrifice.  I 
suppose  he  thinks  thee  worthy  to  get  clear  of  this  woi-ld, 
not  by  disease,  or  Avar,  or  any  of  the  severe  modes  by 
which  death  usually  comes  upon  men;  but  he  will  receive 
Vol..  f.— 33  K 


886  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

thy  soul  with  prayers  and  holy  offices  of  religion,  and 
will  place  thee  near  to  himself,  and  thou  wilt  there  be  to 
me  a  succour  and  support  to  my  old  age,  on  which  account 
I  principally  brought  thee  up,  and  will  thereby  procure 
me  God  for  my  comforter,  instead  of  thyself  Isaac 
replied  that  lie  was  not  worthy  to  be  born  at  first,  if  he 
should  oppose  the  will  of  God  and  his  father;  since  it 
would  have  been  wrong  not  to  obey  even  his  fixther  alone, 
if  he  had  so  resolved.  So  he  went  immediately  to  the 
altar  to  be  sacrificed.  Bat  God  called  loudly  to  Abraham 
by  name,  and  forbade  him  to  slay  his  son ;  saying  he  was 
satisfied  by  the  surprising  readiness  he  showed  in  tliis  his 
piet}^,  and  was  now  delighted  that  he  had  bestowed  so 
many  blessings  upon  him.  He  foretold  also  that  his  family 
should  increase  into  many  nations;  that  those  patriarchs 
should  obtain  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  be  envied 
by  all  men,  and  leave  behind  them  an  everlasting  name. 
When  God  had  said  this,  he  produced  a  ram  for  the  sacri- 
fice, which  did  not  appear  before." 

The  common  idea  of  the  sacredness  of  groves  seems  to 
have  been  inherited  by  Abraham;  for  we  are  told  that  "at 
Beersheba  he  planted  a  grove,  and  called  there  on  the  name 
of  the  Lord,  the  everlasting  God."  Of  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision no  mention  is  made  until  twenty-four  years  after  his 
visit  to  Egypt,  and  fourteen  years  after  he  had  taktm  an 
Egyptian  concubine.  Hebrew  Scriptures  inform  us  that 
when  her  child  was  thirteen  years  old,  and  Abraham  was 
ninety-nine,  "God  made  a  covenant  with  him,  saying, 
Every  male  child  among  you  shall  be  circumcised ;"  and 
the  rite  was  accordingly  performed  on  Abraham  and  all  his 
household. 

Jewish  traditions  say  the  soul  of  Adam  passed  into 
Abraham;  the  same  soul  afterward  inhabited  the  form  of 
l<ing  David;  and  it  will  again  animate  the  Messiah,  whom 
they  expect.  Some  liabbis  relate  that  the  mere  sight  of  a 
precious  stone  hung  about  Abraham's  neck,  cured  all  man- 
ner oi  diseases;  and  after  his  death,  (iod  hung  ihat  jewel 
on  the  sun. 


JEWS.  887 

Abraham  was  the  first  who  was  called  a  Hebrew,  from 
Ilibri,  meaning  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Some  derive  the 
appellation  from  Heber,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Abraham  ; 
but  this  is  probably  erroneous. 

In  the  times  of  Isaac  and  Jacob,  the  Hebrews  were  merely 
one  nomadic  family  of  herdsmen  and  hunters.  The  oldest 
in  .every  family  performed  their  simple  religious  ceremo- 
nies ;  for  as  yet  they  had  no  priesthood.  Isaac  and  Jacob 
both  married  descendants  of  Abraham's  brother  Nahor, 
who  had  remained  in  Mesopotamia  when  other  members 
of  the  family  departed  for  Canaan.  Tlie  nature  of  their 
worship  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  when  Rachel  left  her 
father's  house,  she  stole  his  images  of  the  gods.  Similar 
ideas  were  doubtless  rainojled  with  the  education  of  her 
children,  who  were  men  and  women  when  Jacob  removed 
to  Bethel.  Before  he  sacrificed  to  the  God  of  x-Vbraham  on 
the  altar  he  had  erected  there,  "he  said  to  his  household, 
and  to  those  that  were  with  him.  Put  away  the  strange 
gods  that  are  among  you.  And  they  gave  unto  Jacob  all 
the  strange  gods  that  were  in  their  hands,  and  he  hid  them 
under  the  oak." 

The  patriarchal  modes  of  worship  resembled  those  of  all 
the  nations  round  about.  That  ablation  was  practised  be- 
fore they  performed  religious  ceremonies,  is  shown  by  Ja- 
cob's injunction  to  his  household  to  make  themselves  clean 
and  change  their  garments  before  they  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord.  Wherever  they  had  a  remarkable  adventure,  or  a 
prophetic  dream,  they  set  up  a  pillar  of  stone,  anointed  it 
with  oil,  and  "poured  a  drink-offering  thereon."  Altars 
were  generally  built  on  mountains  or  hills,  where  they  sac- 
rificed animals,  or  offered  oblations  of  fruit  and  grain. 
Jacob  vowed  a  place  for  worship  called  Bethel,  wliieh 
means  God's  house ;  and  there  he  promised  to  pay  tithes 
of  all  God  should  give  him. 

Angels  are  spoken  of  as  appearing  to  the  patriarchs  not 
only  in  dreams,  but  visibly  in  waking  moments.  "  Jacob 
went  on  his  way,  and  the  angels  of  God  met  him  ;  and 
when  Jacob  saw  them,  he  said,  This  is  God's  host."     Jo- 


888  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

sephus  says:  "Jacob  meeting  with  an  angel,  wrestled  with 
him  ;  the  angel  beginning  the  struggle.  But  he  prevailed 
over  the  angel,  who  used  a,  voice  and  spake  to  him  in 
words,  exhorting  him  to  be  pleased  with  what  had  hap- 
pened to  him,  and  not  to  suppose  the  victory  was  a  small 
one;  for  he  had  overcome  a  divine  angel,  and  ought  to 
esteem  the  victory  a  sign  of  great  blessings  that  should  come 
to  him.  He  also  commanded  him  to  be  called  Israel,  which 
in  the  Hebrew  tongue  signifies  one  that  struggled  with  the 
divine  angel.  These  promises  were  made  at  the  pra3'er  of 
Jacob ;  for  when  he  perceived  him  to  be  the  angel  of  God, 
he  desired  he  would  signify  to  him  what  should  befall  him 
hereafter.  When  the  angel  had  said  what  is  before  related, 
he  disappeared.  Jacob  was  pleased  with  these  things,  and 
named  the  place  Phanuel,  which  signifies  the  face  of  God, 
Now  when  he  felt  pain  upon  his  broad  sinew  by  this  strug- 
gling, he  abstained  fi'om  eating  that  sinew  afterward  ;  and 
for  his  sake  it  is  still  not  eaten  by  us."  Hebrew  Sacred 
Books  relate  the  adventure  more  briefly.  Jacob  remarks: 
"  I  have  seen  God  face  to  face,  and  my  life  is  preserved  ;" 
which  implies  a  belief  that  he  had  wrestled  with  God  him- 
self. The  ancient  idea  that  a  spirit  of  prophecy  descends 
on  souls  about  to  quit  this  world,  seems  to  have  existed  here 
also;  for  Jacob  on  his  death-bed  foretold  the  destin}^  of  all 
his  sons.  Blessing  his  grandchildren  before  he  died,  he 
said:  "The  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac,  the  Angel  which 
redeemed  me  from  all  evil,  bless  the  lads."  Some  of  the 
Jewish  liabbis,  in  their  commentaries  on  this  text,  say  their 
ancestor  did  not  directly  pray  to  angels,  but  invoked  God 
through  intermediate  Sj)ii'its,  as  petitions  are  presented  to 
the  king  through  his  ministers.  Others  say  Jacob  pra^^ed 
to  God  for  blessings,  and  to  the  Angel  to  avert  evils. 

God  is  represented  as  saying  to  Moses :  "  I  appeared 
unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob,  as  Elshaddai ; 
but  by  my  name  Jehovah  was  I  not  known  unto  them. 
Elshaddai  is  translated  the  Almighty  God.  From  the  few 
fragments  of  history  which  have  come  down  to  us,  it  is 
nut  possible  to  ascertain  clearly  what  ideas  of  the  Divine 


JEWS.  889 

Being  were  entertained  by  these  wandering  patriarchs. 
Reverence  for  the  supernatural,  which  covered  ancient 
Ilindostan  with  altars,  filled  Egypt  with  temples,  and  sent 
up  incense  from  all  the  Grecian  hills,  inspired  them  also 
with  faith  in  spiritual  agencies,  prompted  them  to  offer  to 
God  the  first-fruits  of  their  fields  and  flocks,  and  mingled 
religious  observances  with  all  the  events  of  life.  Their 
moral  perceptions  were  influenced  by  the  rudeness  of  the 
age  in  which  they  lived ;  and  the  same  remark  applies  to 
the  founders  of  all  ancient  nations.  Hebrew  records  de- 
scribe them  as  men  of  God ;  but  they  also  tell  ns  that  they 
quarrelled  about  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  resorted  to 
many  tricks  and  falsehoods.  Abraham,  to  ensure  his  own 
safety,  represented  his  wife  as  his  sister,  and  by  so  doing 
brought  "great  plagues  on  Pharaoh  and  his  house."  While 
Esau  had  gone  out  hunting  to  bring  venison  for  his  aged 
fathei-.  Jacob  disguised  himself  in  Esau's  clothes,  and  made 
his  hands  hairy,  in  order  to  obtain  the  blessing  intended  for 
liis  elder  brother.  And  when  the  blind  old  man  inquired 
how  he  had  obtained  venison  so  quickly,  he  had  the  har- 
dihood to  answer:  "Because  the  Lord  thy  God  brought  it 
to  me."  While  he  served  Laban,  we  are  told  he  artfully 
managed  to  have  all  the  strong  cattle  of  such  a  colour  as 
Laban  had  promised  to  him  for  wages ;  but,  in  conversa- 
tion with  his  wives,  he  devoutly  ascribed  it  all  to  God :  "If 
your  father  said.  The  speckled  shall  be  thy  wages,  then  all 
the  cattle  bare  speckled.  If  he  said,  The  ring-straked  shall 
be  thy  hire,  then  all  the  cattle  bare  ring-straked.  Thus 
God  hath  taken  away  the  cattle  of  your  father  and  given 
them  to  me."  Josephus  informs  us  that  "Jacob  was  en- 
vied and  admired  for  his  virtuous  sons."  But  we  find 
eight  of  them  conspiring  to  murder  their  younger  brother, 
and  dissuaded  from  their  cruel  purpose  only  by  the  sug- 
gestion of  one  of  them  to  sell  him  into  slavery.  Reuben 
was  guilty  of  dishonourable  conduct  with  his  father's  con- 
cubine. Judah  ordered  his  son's  widow  to  be  put  to  death 
for  incontinence,  and  was  induced  to  recall  the  sentence 
only  because  she  proved  to  him  that  he  was  himself  the 
Vol.  I.— 33* 


390  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

flither  of  her  child.  Shecliem,  the  son  of  a  neighbouring 
chieftain,  in  a  sudden  fit  of  amorous  passion,  took  Jacob's 
daughter  to  himself  without  asking  the  consent  of  relatives, 
or  oifering  the  customary  purchase-money.  He  afterward 
sought  to  atone  for  his  too  violent  love,  by  offering  mar- 
riage, and  whatever  dowry  her  friends  required.  Her 
brothers  replied  that  such  a  marriage  would  be  impossible, 
unless  he  and  all  his  tribe  consented  to  be  circumcised, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  Hebrews.  The  ardent 
young  chieftain  agreed  to  these  hard  terms;  but  when  they 
had  been  fully  complied  with,  Jacob's  sons  slew  him  and 
all  ins  j^eople,  seized  all  their  possessions,  and  carried  their 
wives  and  little  ones  into  captivity. 

Tlie  sale  of  Joseph  by  his  brethren  was  the  first  circum- 
stance that  brought  the  posterity  of  Israel  into  close  con- 
nection with  Egypt.  By  his  skill  in  the  interpretation  of 
dreams,  Joseph  rose  high  in  favour  with  one  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, who  named  him  Psothom  Phanec,  which  signifies 
the  revealer  of  secrets,  and  subsequently  invited  his  rela- 
tives to  reside  in  a  district  of  his  kingdom.  How  far  he 
assumed  the  customs  of  his  adopted  country,  we  are  not  in- 
formed. That  he  did  so  in  some  degree,  is  implied  by  the 
fact  that  he  married  an  Egyptian  wife  of  high  rank,  daughter 
of  Poti-pherah,  priest  of  On,  which  Greeks  called  Heliopo- 
lis.  That  he  practised  tlie  magical  rites  then  in  vogue,  is 
shown  by  his  describing  the  cup  found  in  Benjamin's  sack, 
as  "  the  cup  whereby  he  divined."  When  he  died,  his 
body  was  embalmed  and  buried  l)y  Egyptians;  but  it  was 
afterward  carried  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  according  to  a 
promise  he  had  required  of  his  bretliren.  Joseph  us  says 
the  posterity  of  Jacob  remained  in  Egypt  four  hundred 
years.  They  dwelt  apart,  in  a  district  assigned  to  them, 
because  "she[)herds  were  an  abomination  unto  the  Egyp- 
tians." But  thougli  they  were  a  separate  people,  with  a 
foreign  language,  the  opinions  and  customs  of  others  grad- 
ually mingled  with  their  own,  in  tlie  coui'so  of  centuries. 

Hebrew  Sacred  Books  iidbrm  us  that  tlie  Egyptians,  in 
process  of  time,  became  jealous  of  the  rapid  increase  of 


JEWS.  391 

Hebrews,  and  therefore  ordered  their  male  chiklren  to  be 
put  to  death.  Josephus  gives  an  additional  reason.  He 
says:  "One  of  the  saercd  seribes  among  the  Egyptians, 
Avlio  were  vory  sagacious  in  truly  foretelling  future  events, 
told  the  king  that  about  this  time  a  child  would  be  born 
to  the  Israelites,  who,  if  he  were  reared,  would  bring  the 
Egyptian  dominion  low,  and  would  raise  the  Israelites." 
This  prediction  so  alarmed  the  monarch,  that  he  ordered 
all  their  new-born  sons  to  be  drowned.  Amram,  grandson 
of  Levi,  was  informed  in  a  dream  that  a  babe  about  to  be 
born  to  him  was  the  remarkable  child  predicted  by  the 
Egyptian  prophet.  When  the  boy  came  into  the  world, 
he  was  thrown  into  the  river,  according  to  the  royal  com- 
mand ;  but  he  was  carefully  enclosed  in  a  strongly  woven 
basket,  and  his  sister  watched  it  as  it  floated  down  the 
stream.  When  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  went  with  her 
attendants  to  bathe  in  the  Nile,  she  saw  the  basket,  and 
caused  it  to  be  brought  to  her.  Struck  with  the  uncom- 
mon beauty  of  the  infant,  she  at  once  adopted  him,  and 
sent  for  a  nurse.  The  babe  naturally  turned  away  from 
the  breast  of  a  stranger,  and  his  sister  Miriam  made  this  a 
pretext  for  calling  his  own,  mother  to  nurse  him.  Pharaoh 
ratified  his  daughter's  adoption,  notwithstanding  the  alarm 
which  Josephus  says  he  felt  concerning  the  prophecv. 
They  bestowed  on  the  foundling  the  name  of  Moses,  from 
Egyptian  words,  signif)dng  saved  from  the  waters.  This 
is  supposed  to  have  happened  about  one  thousand  six  hun- 
dred years  before  our  era. 

Two  sets  of  influences  acted  on  the  child  thus  rescued, 
and  produced  a  character  which  has  strongly  marked 
itself  on  the  history  of  the  world.  He  was  born  a  He- 
brew, and  his  people,  as  herdsmen  and  labourers,  belonged 
to  a  caste  despised  by  the. upper  classes  of  Egypt.  He 
was  nursed  by  his  own  mother,  and  would  )iaturally  keep 
i\\)  a  subsequent  connection  with  his  relatives.  Under 
such  circumstances,  he  could  scarcely  fill  to  hear  the 
prophecies  and  exploits  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
U;ld  with  all  the  exaggerating  pride  of  family  and  elan, 


392  PllOGllESS    OF    IIELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

whicli  to  this  day  marks  tlie  traditions  of  nomadic  tribes. 
That  sympathy  for  his  people  was  kept  wide  awake  within 
him,  is  manifest  by  the  fact  that  at  forty  years  old  he  slew 
an  Egyptian  because  he  saw  him  beating  a  Hebrew.  But 
while  the  posterity  of  his  ancestors  wei'e  in  the  condition 
of  ignorant  slaves,  he  himself  received  the  best  instruction 
the  world  then  afforded.  Writers  of  his  own  nation 
thought  they  awarded  him  the  highest  intellectual  praise 
when  they  declared  "  he  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyj)tians."  From  all  sources  there  is  concurrent 
testimony  that  Egypt  was  universally  considered  the  foun- 
>  tain-head  of  wisdom  and  science.  Knowledge  was  shut 
up  from  the  common  people,  and  monopolized  by  the 
priesthood,  which  included  the  royal  family  within  itself. 
Moses,  as  the  adopted  son  of  the  king,  who  was  always 
inducted  into  the  sacerdotal  ranks  before  his  inauguration, 
must  necessarily  have  been  educated  by  priests,  and  of 
course  familiar  with  the  secret  doctrines  taught  at  the 
solemnization  of  their  Great  Mysteries.  From  fitful  gleams 
of  light,  which  history  throws  on  the  subject,  there  is 
reason  to  suppose  these  Mysteries  inculcated  a  belief  in 
One  Invisible  God,  whose  attril^utes  were  merely  symbol- 
ized by  the  numerous  popular  deities.  Similar  ideas 
would  be  instilled  by  his  mother  and  Hebrew  relatives, 
when  they  repeated  Abraham's  abhorrence  of  images,  and 
traditionary  prophecies  that  his  descendants  were  destined 
to  become  a  mighty  nation  under  the  especial  guidance  of 
the  "God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob."  Thus  trained 
in  sympathy  with  his  people,  and  educated  fiir  above  their 
level,  he  was  peculiarly  prepared  to  be  their  leader;  an 
ofTice  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  undertaken  when  ho 
was  about  eighty  years  of  age. 

The  only  light  we  have  concerning  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt,  is  imparted  by  Hebrew  Sacred 
Books  and  fragments  of  Manctho,  an  ancient  historian  of 
Egypt,  as  quoted  by  Josephus.  The  book  of  Exodus  in- 
forms us  that  Pharaoh  became  jealous  of  their  increasing 
numbers,  lest  in  case  of  war  they  should  join  with  his 


TEWS.  393 

enemies.  This  was  a  very  natural  fear,  considering  how 
much  Egypt  h:id  suffered  from  the  irruption  of  a  Slieplierd 
race  from  the  East,  and  their  consequent  dread  of  wander- 
ing and  predatory  tribes;  but  it  produced  a  policy  so 
oppressive  toward  tlie  Hebrews,  that  God  commanded 
Moses  to  bring  them  out  thence,  and  take  possession  of  the 
promised  land  of  Canaan ;  and  when  they  went  out,  "a 
mixed  multitude  went  with  them." 

Manetho,  as  quoted  by  Joseph  us,  states  that  the  pro- 
vinces of  Egypt  rose  against  the  Shepherd  race,  who  had 
subjugated  them.  A  long  war  ensued,  wliicli  ended  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Shepherds.  They  were  permitted 
"to  depart  from  Egypt  with  all  their  families  and  effects, 
in  number  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand, 
and  bent  their  way  through  the  desert  toward  Syria.  But 
as  they  stood  in  fear  of  the  Assyrians,  who  then  had  do- 
minion over  Asia,  they  built  a  city  in  that  country  which 
is  now  called  Judea,  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  this  multi- 
tude of  men,  and  named  it  Jerusalem."  Some  suppose 
the  name  of  Palestine  to  be  derived  from  Pali-stan,  the 
Land  of  the  Pali,  which  means  of  Shepherds.  Manetlio 
goes  on  to  say :  "  The  king  Amenophis  was  desirous  of 
beholding  the  gods,  as  Orus,  one  of  his  predecessors  in  the 
kingdom,  had  seen  them ;  and  he  communicated  his  desire 
to  a  priest,  who  seemed  to  partake  of  the  divine  nature, 
both  in  his  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  futurity.  He  told 
the  king  that  it  was  in  his  power  to  behold  the  gods,  if  he 
would  cleanse  the  whole  country  of  lepers,  and  other  un- 
clean persons  that  abounded  in  it.  AV^ell  pleased  with  this 
information,  the  king  gathered  together  out  of  Egypt  all 
that  laboui'ed  under  any  defect  in  body,  to  the  amount  of 
eighty  thousand,  and  sent  them  to  the  quarries,  which  are 
situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile,  that  they  might  work 
in  them,  and  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Egyptians. 
Among  them  were  some  learned  priests,  who  were  affected 
with  leprosy.  The  prophet,  fearing  the  vengeance  of  the 
gods  would  fall  both  on  himself  and  the  king,  if  it  should 
appear  that  violence  had  been  offered  to  these   priests, 

R* 


394:  PROGRESS  OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

added,  also  in  a  prophetic  spirit,  that  certain  people  would 
come  to  the  assistance  of  these  unclean  persons,  and  would 
subdue  Egypt,  and  hold  it  in  possession  thirteen  years. 
He  dared  not  communicate  these  tidino;s  to  the  kino;,  but 
left  in  writing  what  would  come  to  pass,  and  then  de- 
stroyed himself,  at  whicli  the  king  was  fearfully  distressed. 
When  those  sent  to  work  in  the  quarries  had  continued 
some  time  in  that  miserable  state,  the  king  was  petitioned 
to  set  apart  for  their  habitation  and  protection  the  city  of 
Avaris,  which  had  been  left  vacant  by  the  Shepherds ;  and 
he  gi'anted  their  desire.  But  when  they  had  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  city,  and  found  it  well  adapted  for  a  revolt, 
they  appointed  for  themselves  a  ruler  from  among  the 
priests  of  Heliopolis,  one  whose  name  was  Osarsiph,  and 
they  bound  then^iselves  by  oath  tliat  they  would  be  obe- 
dient to  him.  Osarsiph,  in  the  first  place,  enacted  a  law 
that  they  should  neither  worship  the  gods,  nor  abstain 
from  those  sacred  animals  which  Egyptians  held  in  vene- 
ration, but  sacrifice  and  slay  any  of  them;  anil  that  they 
should  connect  themselves  with  none  but  such  as  were  of 
their  own  confederacy.  When  he  had  made  such  laws  as 
these,  and  many  others  of  a  tendency  directly  in  opposi 
tion  to  the  customs  of  the  Egyptians,  he  gave  orders  that 
tliey  should  employ  the  multitude  of  hands  in  rebuilding 
the  walls  about  the  city,  and  hold  themselves  in  readiness 
for  war  with  Amenophis  the  king.  He  then  took  into  his 
counsels  some  others  of  the  priests  and  unclean  persons, 
and  sent  ambassadors  to  Jerusalem,  to  those  Shepherds 
who  had  been  expelled  by  king  Tethmosis.  He  informed 
them  of  the  position  of  affairs,  and  requested  them  to 
come  up  unanimously  to  his  assistance  in  this  war  with 
Egypt,  lie  promised  to  provide  a  plentiful  maintenance 
for  their  host,  and  reinstate  them  in  their  ancient  city 
Avaris,  assuring  them  that  he  could  easily  reduce  tlie 
country  and  bring  it  under  theii'  dominion.  The  Shep- 
lierds  received  this  message  with  great  joy,  and  quickly 
mustered  to  the  number  of  two  hundied  thousand  men, 
and  came  up  to   Avaris."     The  king  of  Egypt  retreated 


jp:ws.  395 

into  Ethiopia,  fearing  tlie  vengeance  of  the  gods  if  he 
attaeked  the  lepers,  on  account  of  the  sacredness  of  the 
priests,  who  were  among  them.  "  AV^hcn  tho^e  ])e()|)le 
from  JerusaU^m  had  come  down,  with  the  unclean  of  the 
Egyptians,  they  treated  the  inhabitants  with  snch  bar- 
barity, that  those  who  witnessed  their  impieties  believed 
their  joint  sway  was  more  execrable  than  that  wdiich  the 
Shepherds  had  formerly  exercised  alone.  For  they  not 
only  set  fire  to  the  cities  and  villages,  but  committed  every 
kind  of  sacrilege,  destroyed  the  images  of  the  gods,  and 
roasted  and  fed  upon  those  sacred  animals  that  were  wor- 
shipped; and  having  compelled  the  priests  and  prophets 
to  kill  and  sacrifice  them,  they  cast  them  naked  out  of  the 
country.  It  is  said  that  the  priest  who  ordained  their 
polity  and  laws  was  by  birth  of  lleliopolis,  and  his  name 
Osarsiph,  from  Osiris,  the  god  of  Heliopolis;  but  when  he 
went  over  to  these  people  his  name  was  changed,  and  he 
was  called  Moses.  After  this,  Amenophis  and  llampses 
his  son  came  with  a  great  force,  and  encountering  the 
She|)herds  and  the  unclean  people,  they  defeated  them, 
and  slew  multitudes,  and  pursued  them  to  the  bounds  of 
Syria."  Such  is  the  Egyptian  version  of  the  story,  and 
Josephus  quotes  it  to  prove  that  his  ancestors  were  de- 
scended from  the  Shepherd  kings. 

Whether  Moses  ever  was  an  Egyptian  priest,  it  is  now 
impossible  to  ascertain.  But  it  seems  likely  that  the 
Israelites  departed  from  Egypt  about  thirty  years  after 
Cecrops  left  the  same  country,  to  found  the  city  of  Athens. 
A  man  called  ]\[oses  bound  them  together  by  laws,  which 
gave  a  new  impress  to  their  character,  and  strongly  influ- 
enced the  whole  of  their  future  destiny.  These  laws  are 
in  many  respects  obvious  copies  of  what  he  had  learned  in 
Egypt;  but  he  infused  some  elevated  ideas,  greatly  in  ad- 
vance of  his  time;  ideas  which  dawned  upon  his  soul  by 
the  same  divine  influence  which  in  all  ages  and  all  nations 
has  guided  every  human  being  who  has  been  enabled  to 
help  the  world  forward  even  one  single  step  in  its  slow 
progress.     All  surrounding  nations  had  adopted  some  of 


896  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

the  subordinate  Spirits  for  their  especial  guardians,  while 
priests,  or  philosophers,  taught  among  themselves  the 
secret  doctrine  of  One  Invisible  God.  Moses  declared  to 
the  Hebrews  that  the  One  Supreme  God  was  t.Itnlr  tutelary 
deity ;  their  peculiar  guardian  and  friend,  and  the  sworn 
enemy  of  all  their  enemies.  He  was  wiser  and  stronger 
than  any  of  the  gods  who  protected  other  nations ;  how- 
ever powerful  those  deities  might  be,  he  ruled  over  them 
all;  and  therefore  the  people  whom  he  had  chosen  for  his 
own  would  rule  over  other  nations,  if  they  obeyed  him, 
lie  himself  chose  their  ancestor  Abraham  to  be  the  founder 
of  a  great  nation.  He  himself  had  spoken  to  the  Patri- 
archs with  his  own  voice,  and  guided  them  in  every  step 
of  their  wanderings ;  he  had  appeared  to  them  visibly,  and 
in  dreams,  and  had  pledged  his  word  that  their  posterity 
should  possess  the  land  of  Canaan.  Again  and  again 
Moses  repeated  :  "  Thou  art  an  holy  people  unto  the  Lord 
thy  God.  The  Lord  hath  chosen  thee  to  be  a  peculiar 
people  unto  himself,  above  all  the  nations  that  are  upon 
the  earth."  In  the  name  of  the  Lord  he  prophesied : 
"  Thou  shalt  lend  unto  many  nations,  but  thou  shalt  not 
borrow ;  and  thou  shalt  rule  over  many  nations,  but  they 
shall  not  reign  over  thee."  Such  were  the  doctrines  and 
promises  which  fired  the  zeal  and  concentrated  the  ener- 
gies of  the  Hebrews,  and  at  the  same  time  produced  an 
exaggerated  estimate  of  their  own  importance. 

But  though  one  undivided  object  of  worship  was  pre- 
sented, instead  of  a  multitude  of  deities,  the  ritual  pre- 
scribed by  Moses  bore  very  strong  resemblance  to  the 
Egyptian  models,  with  which  his  mind  had  been  long 
familiar.  When  the  ])eople  inquired  the  name  of  the 
great  God  who  had  chosen  them,  he  told  them  it  was  Je- 
hovah;  a  word  which  contains  the  present,  past,  and  future 
tenses  of  the  Hebi-cw  verb  to  be;  and  therefore  signifies  I 
am,  was,  and  will  l)e.  On  a  very  aiicient  temple  in  Egypt 
lias  been  found  the  inscrii)tion,  "I  am  whatever  is,  was, 
and  will  be."  Hebrews  had  such  reverence  for  the  name 
of  Jehovah,  that  it  was  never  uttered  except  by  the  High 


jKws.  397 

Priest;  and  wlun  the  people  beard  it,  tlicy  all  fell  pros- 
trate to  the  ground.  They  never  wrote  it,  but  expressed 
it  in  their  Saered  Books  by  a  short  mark,  which  they 
pronounced  Adonai,  meaning  the  Lord.  The  names  of 
Egyptian  deities  were  never  written  in  the  popular  lan- 
guage of  the  country ;  they  were  always  expressed  by 
symbols ;  and  even  in  their  sacred  language  the  names  of 
some  divinities  were  always  written  in  one  way,  and  pro- 
nounced in  another.  Hindoos  had  similar  scruples  con- 
cerning the  name  of  Brahm. 

Judges  in  Egypt,  who  were  always  priests,  wore  a 
breastplate  ornamented  with  jewels,  containing  the  images 
of  two  deities,  Thme,  goddess  of  Truth  or  Justice,  and  Ra, 
god  of  the  Sun,  signifying  Light,  or  Manifestation.  The 
Urei,  or  Asps,  were  emblems  of  royalty  in  Egypt,  and 
often  affixed,  in  hieroglyphics,  to  the  disc  of  the  sun, 
because  he  was  the  king  of  planets.  Moses  ordained  that 
Hebrew  High  Priests  should  wear  a  breastplate  set  with 
precious  stones,  and  that  the  Urim  and  Thummim  should 
be  placed  therein.  There  has  been  much  controversv 
among  commentators  concerning  the  Urira  and  Thum- 
mim. The  sun  in  Hebrew  is  Aur;  plural,  Aurim.  Truth 
is  Thm(^;  plural,  Thmim.  When  learned  Jews  translated 
their  Sacred  Scriptures  into  Greek,  they  translated  Urim 
and  Thummim  into  Greek  words  signifying  Manifestation 
and  Truth.  Philo,  a  learned  Jew,  informs  us  that  the 
breastplate  of  their  High  Priest  contained  "images  of  the 
two  Virtues,  or  Powers." 

The  portable  temple,  which  Moses  made  in  the  form  of 
a  tent,  and  called  the  Tabernacle,  was  constructed  on  the 
same  principles  as  Egyptian  temples.  It  faced  the  east ;  it 
had  a  tank  of  water  for  ablution;  it  had  an  outer  enclo- 
sure, another  within,  called  the  Sanctuary,  or  Holv,  and 
another  inmost,  called  Sanctum  Sanctorum,  or  Holy  of 
Holies ;  veiled  from  the  congregation  by  a  gorgeous  cur- 
tain of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  In  the  inmost  sanctuary 
of  Egyptian  temples  was  a  chest  or  shrine,  surmounted  by 
a  sacred  image,  overshadowed  by  creatures  with  wings. 
Vol..  I.— 34 


398  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

In  the  Sanctum  Sanctorum  of  the  Tabernacle  was  a  chest, 
or  ark,  plated  with  gold,  and  overshadowed  b}'  the  wings 
of  clierubini,  touching  each  other.  There  has  been  much 
discussion  concerning  these  cherubim.  Josephus  says 
they  were  "fl^'ing  animals,  Hke  to  none  which  are  seen 
by  men,  but  such  as  Moses  saw  figured  in  the  throne  of 
God."  Ezekiel,  alluding  to  these  emblems,  describes  the 
same  face  in  one  place  as  the  face  of  an  ox,  and  in  another 
as  the  face  of  a  cherub.  The  word  cherub  in  Hebrew 
means  to  plough.  It  is  now  the  general  opinion  of  scholars 
that  the  Hebrew  cheriibim  were  creatures  resembling  the 
winged  bulls,  so  common  as  sacred  en^iblems  in  Chaldea 
and  Egypt.  The  Hebrew  Ark  had  rings,  through  which 
poles  were  slipped,  that  it  might  be  carried  on  the  shoulders 
of  priests.  In  many  of  the  religious  processions  sculptured 
in  ancient  Egyptian  temples,  priests  are  represented  carry- 
ing their  sacred  shrine  in  the  same  manner. 

Kings  and  priests  in  Egypt  were  anointed  with  sacred  oil. 
Moses  prepared  fragrant  oil,  consecrated  it,  and  laid  it  up 
in  the  Tabernacle  to  anoint  the  Hebrew  priests.  In  Egypt, 
the  Hio;h  Priesthood  descended  in  the  same  femilv ;  it  was 
the  same  with  the  Hebrews.  In  Egypt,  portions  of  land 
were  set  apart  for  the  sacerdotal  order,  and  the  same  pro- 
vision was  made  for  Hebrew  priests.  In  both  countries, 
the  priests  wore  pure  white  linen,  and  performed  many 
ablutions.  In  both  countries,  the  government  was  a  the- 
ocracy ;  everything  being  decided  by  oracles  delivered  to 
priests  in  the  temple. 

Egyptians  welcomed  the  New  Moon  with  religious  cere- 
monies; so  did  the  Hebrews.  They  had  harvest  festivals, 
during  which  they  offered  the  first  sheaves  of  their  grain 
to  Isis ;  Hebrews  did  the  same  in  the  service  of  Jeliovah. 
Sculptures  in  Egypt,  made  long  before  the  time  of  Moses, 
rej)resent  priests  olfering  cakes,  meal,  wine,  turtledoves, 
and  young  pigeons,  to  their  gods;  and  precisely  these  obla- 
tions to  Jehovah  are  prescribed  by  the  Hebrew  Law. 
Hindoos  and  Egyptians  had  an  idea  that  the  fumes  of 
animal  sacrifices  were  acceptable  to  the  deities,  and  in  some 


JEWS.  399 

sort  necessary  to  them.  In  tlie  Laws  of  Moses,  burnt- 
offerings  of  animals  are  continually  called  "a  sweet  savour 
unto  the  Lord."  Hindoos  and  Egyptians  believed  fra- 
grance was  peculiarly  agreeable  to  divine  beings;  and 
Hebrews  were  commanded  to  wave  incense  before  the 
Lord. 

Egyptian  priests,  with  solemn  ceremonies,  laid  the  sins 
of  the  nation  on  the  head  of  a  bullock,  sacrificed  the 
victim,  and  removed  far  from  them  the  head,  on  which 
the  sins  were  supposed  to  rest.  Moses  ordained  that  the 
sins  of  the  priesthood  should  be  laid  oa  the  head  of  a 
bullock,  to  be  afterward  sacrificed;  and  the  sins  of  the 
people  to  be  laid  on  the  head  of  a  goat,  who  was  afterward 
thrown  over  a  precipice,  that  he  might  carry  the  sins  off 
with  him.  Both  Hindoos  and  Egyptians  attached  peculiar 
sacredness  to  cows.  The  ashes  of  cow-dung,  prepared 
with  solemn  ceremonies,  is  prescribed  in  the  Vedas  to  be 
mixed  with  water  as  an  appropriate  purification  to  keep 
away  the  Spirits  of  Death.  Moses  commanded  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  to  burn  a  red  heifer,  "skin,  flesh,  blood,  and 
dung."  The  ashes  thus  obtained  was  gathered  np,  and 
kept  for  purposes  of  purification.  The  priest  mixed  it 
with  water,  and  sprinkled  it  with  a  bunch  of  hyssop 
upon  whoever  had  touched  a  haitian  bone,  or  a  grave,  or 
a  dead  body,  or  had  entered  a  tent  where  a  corpse  was 
lying. 

From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  the  custom  for  tra- 
velling parties  in  Ilindostan  to  take  with  them  a  pole  with 
the  image  of  a  serpent  wreathed  round  it.  Serpents  of 
brass  and  serpents  of  silver  abounded  in  Egyptian  tem- 
ples, and  were  mysteriously  connected  with  their  ideas  of 
the  healing  art.  From  them  Greeks  learned  to  attach 
similar  medical  importance  to  the  serpent;  and  the  em- 
blem of  their  yEsculapius,  god  of  medicine,  was  a  serpent 
wreathed  round  a  pole.  Hebrew  Sacred  Books  tell  ua 
that  Moses  made  a  serpent  of  brass  and  j)ut  it  upon  a 
pole;  "and  it  came  to  pass  that  if  a  serpent  had  bitten 
any  man,  when  he  beheld  the  serp(Mit  of  brass,  he  lived." 


400  PKOGKESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Egyptians  had  great  abhorrence  of  swine,  and  considered 
the  flesli  unclean  above  all  other  food.  Priests  purified 
themselves  with  religious  ceremonies  if  they  touched  the 
beast,  even  accidentally;  for  it  was  the  common  belief 
that  Evil  Spirits  were  peculiarly  prone  to  talce  up  their 
abode  in  them.  Moses  said  to  the  children  of  Israel :  "  The 
flesh  of  swine  shall  ye  not  eat,  and  their  carcass  shall  ye 
not  touch ;  they  are  unclean  to  you."  If  they  luappened 
to  touch  one,  they  went  through  ceremonies  of  purification 
before  they  ventured  to  approach  any  sacred  place. 

Why  Moses  was  not  circumcised,  being  a  descendant  of 
Abraham,  and  adopted  by  Egyptians  in  infancy,  is  not 
explained ;  but  the  fact  is  implied  by  his  saying  to  the 
Lord:  "Behold  I  am  of  uncircumcised  lips;  how  then 
shall  Pharaoh  hearken  unto  me?"  The  question  plainly 
indicates  that  the  rite  was  deemed  of  importance  by  the 
Egyptians.  While  Moses  dwelt  with  Jethro,  priest  of 
Midian,  he  seems  to  have  neglected  the  circumcision  of  his 
son.  But  when  he  was  about  to  return  to  Egypt,  the  rite 
was  performed,  though  Zipporah,  his  wife,  appeared  averse 
to  tlie  custom. 

Hindoos  and  Egyptians,  being  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
rain  is  caused  by  continued  exhalations  from  the  earth  and 
ocean,  supposed  that  there  was  a  great  reservoir  of  waters 
above  the  sky.  That  Hebrews  entertained  the  same  idea, 
is  shown  by  their  statement  that  when  Jehovah  created 
the  world,  "he  divided  the  waters  which  were  under  the 
firmament  from  the  waters  which  were  above  the  firma- 
ment." 

Many  more  points  of  resemblance  would  doubtless  be- 
come obvious,  if  Egyptian  records  had  come  down  to  us 
as  fully  as  the  Hebrew.  But  Moses  took  some  very  im- 
portant steps  in  advance  of  the  country  where  he  was 
educated.  The  descendants  of  his  ancestor  Levi  were 
ordained  a  line  of  hereditary  priests;  and  the  family  of 
his  brother  Aaron  was  instituted  a  perpetual  order  of  High 
Priests.  But  with  this  exception,  he  did  not  divide  the 
people  into  castes.     Egyptian  priests  kept  the  higher  por* 


JEWS.  401 

tions  of  their  religion  as  mysteries  carefally  coneealed 
from  the  populace.  But  the  religion  taught  by  Moses  was 
equally  open  to  all  classes.  In  the  name  of  the  Lord,  he 
announced  to  all  the  Hebrews:  "Ye  shall  be  unto  me  a 
kingdom  of  priests,  a  holy  nation."  When  one  ran  and 
told  him  that  two  men  were  prophesying  in  the  camp,  he 
nobly  replied:  "Enviest  thou  for  my  sake?  Would  God 
that  all  the  Lord's  people  were  prophets,  and  that  the 
Lord  would  put  his  spirit  upon  them."  Some  of  the  Le- 
vites  took  advantage  of  this  equalizing  doctrine,  and  said 
to  Moses  and  Aaron :  "  Ye  take  too  much  upon  you,  see- 
ing all  the  congregation  are  holy,  eveiy  one  of  them,  and 
the  Lord  is  among  them."  Nevertheless,  a  line  of  separa- 
tion was,  to  some  extent,  established  between  the  initiated 
few  and  the  rude  tribes  they  governed,  Moses  and  Aaron, 
and  all  the  succeeding  series  of  High  Priests,  are  repre- 
sented as  in  possession  of  some  means  of  direct  communi- 
cation with  Heaven,  unknown  to  tlie  common  people,  and 
carefully  preserved  fi-om  them. 

The  greatest  step  in  advance  was  the  idea  of  God  as  an 
Invisible  Being,  never  to  be  represented  by  any  image  or 
svmbol.  There  is  much  reason  to  suppose  that  enlightened 
Egyptians  also  believed  in  One  All  Including  Being,  from 
whom  Amun  and  the  other  deities  emanated.  But  their 
Supreme  Cause  was  probably  a  mere  abstraction,  like  the 
Hindoo  Brahm,  and  the  Persian  Zeruane  Akerene.  And 
even  that  metaphysical  idea  was  known  to  the  priests  on!/, 
while  the  multitude  were  left  to  worship  cats  and  dogs, 
bulls  and  crocodiles.  Moses,  on  the  contrary,  reprebcnted 
the  One  Invisible  God  as  living  in  the  midst  of  the  peo- 
ple, sustaining,  protecting,  rewarding,  and  punishing  them. 
In  most  contemporary  nations,  the  division  of  the  gods  into 
masculine  and  feminine,  had  led  to  many  gross  ideas  and 
licentious  practices  in  religious  ceremonies.  There  were 
no  traces  of  such  in  the  teachings  of  the  Hebrew  law- 
giver; and  the  consequence  was  a  much  higher  and  purer 
worship  than  belonged  to  any  of  the  surrounding  nations. 
But  their  ideas  of  God  were  not  sufficiently  elevated  fot 
Vol.  I.— 34* 


i02  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

them  to  imagine  him  above  all  liuman  passions.  Anger, 
jealousy,  and  revenge,  are  perpetually  imputed  to  him. 
Of  a  Hebrew  who  offered  any  liomage  to  the  gods  of 
other  nations,  it  was  said  :  "  The  Lord  will  not  spare  him  ; 
but  the  anger  of  the  Lord,  and  his  jealousy,  shall  smoke 
against  that  man."  And  God  said :  "  If  thou  aiUict  any 
widow,  or  fatherless  child,  my  wrath  shall  wax  hot,  and  I 
will  kill  you  with  the  sword."  It  was  common,  in  describ- 
ing offenders,  to  say:  "The  Lord  rooted  them  out  in 
anger,  and  wrath,  and  great  indignation."  Sometimes  he 
is  represented  as  changeable  of  purpose,  repenting  of  the 
evil  he  had  done,  or  intended  to  do.  When  the  golden 
calf  was  made,  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses:  "Behold  it  is  a 
stiff-necked  people;  now,  therefore,  let  me  alone  that  my 
wrath  may  wax  hot  against  them,  and  that  I  may  consume 
them.  And  Moses  besought  the  Lord  his  God,  and  said, 
Lord,  why  doth  thy  wrath  wax  hot  against  thy  people, 
which  thou  hast  brought  forth  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt? 
Wherefore  should  the  Egyptians  say.  For  mischief  did  he 
bring  them  out,  to  slay  them  in  the  mountains,  and  con- 
sume them  from  the  face  of  the  earth  ?  Turn  from  thy 
fierce  wrath,  and  repent  of  this  evil  against  thy  people. 
Remember  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  thy  servants,,  to 
whom  thou  swarest  by  thine  own  self,  I  will  multiply  thy 
seed  as  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  all  this  land  will  I  give 
unto  your  seed,  and  they  shall  inherit  it  forever.  And 
the  Lord  repented  of  the  evil  which  he  thought  to  do  unto 
liis  people."  AYhen  the  children  of  Israel  murmured  in 
the  wilderness,  "  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  IIow  long 
will  this  people  provoke  me?  I  will  smite  them  with  the 
pestilence,  and  disiidierit  them.  And  Moses  said  unto  the 
Lord,  Then  the  Egyptians  shall  hear  of  it,  and  they  will 
tell  it  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  land.  They  have  heard 
that  thou  Lord  art  among  this  peo])lc,  that  thou  art  seen 
face  to  face,  that  thou  goest  before  them  by  day  in  a  })illar 
of  cloud,  and  in  a  ])illar  of  hre  by  night.  Now  if  thou 
fihalt  kill  all  this  people,  then  the  nations  which  have 
beard  of  thee  will  say,  15ecausc  the  Lord  was  not  able  to 


JEWS.  403 

bring  this  peo[)le  into  the  land  whicli  he  swarc  unto  thoni, 
therefore  he  hath  slain  them  in  the  wilderness.  I  beseech 
thee  pardon  the  iniquity  of  this  people,  according  unto  the 
greatness  of  thy  mercy.  And  the  Lord  said,  I  have  par- 
doned, according  to  thy  word."  Tlie  commands  and 
actions  attributed  to  God  constantly  manifest  the  same 
tendency  to  judge  of  the  Supreme  Being  as  if  he  were 
like  unto  themselves.  He  is  represented  as  commanding 
them  to  "buy  bondmen  and  bondwomen  of  the  heathen 
round  about.  They  shall  be  your  bondmen  forever. 
And  if  a  man  smite  his  servant,  or  his  maid,  with  a  rod, 
and  he  die  under  his  hand,  he  shall  be  surely  punished. 
Notwithstanding,  if  he  continue  a  day  or  two,  he  shall  not 
be  punished ;  for  he  is  his  money." 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  Go  and  smite  Amalek, 
and  utterly  destroy  all  that  they  have,  and  spare  them 
not;  but  slay  both  man  and  woman,  infant  and  suckling." 

"Of  the  cities  of  these  people,  which  the  Lord  thy 
God  doth  give  thee  for  an  inheritance,  thou  slialt  save 
alive  nothing  that  breatheth.  Thou  shalt  utterly  destroy 
them." 

"  If  a  man  cause  a  blemish  in  his  neighbour,  as  he  hath 
done  so  shall  it  be  done  unto  him.  He  that  killeth  a  nian, 
he  shall  be  put  death.  Breach  for  breach,  eye  for  eye, 
tooth  for  tooth,  hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot,  burning  for 
burning,  wound  for  wound,  stripe  for  stripe ;  as  he  hath 
done,  so  shall  it  be  done  unto  him  again." 

While  the  children  of  Israel  were  dwelling  in  the 
vicinity  of  Moabites,  they  were  invited  to  attend  some  of 
the  festivals  of  the  gods  of  Moab.  They  consented,  "and 
did  eat,  and  bowed  down  to  their  gods."  "And  the  anger 
of  the  Lord  was  kindled  against  Israel ;  and  he  said  unto 
Moses,  Take  all  the  heads  of  the  people  and  hang  them 
up  before  the  Lord  against  the  sun,  that  the  fierce  anger 
of  the  Lord  may  be  turned  away  from  Israel." 

Concerning  those  who  were  drawn  toward  other  modes 
of  worship  than  the  Hebrew,  the  Lord  commanded:  "If 
th}'  brother,   the  son  of  thy  mother,  or  thy  son,   or  thy 


404:  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

daughter,  or  tlie  wife  of  thy  bosom,  or  thy  friend,  wliich 
is  as  thine  own  soul,  entice  thee  secretly,  saying,  Let  us 
go  and  serve  other  gods;  thou  shalt  not  consent  unto  hiin, 
nor  hearken  unto  him  ;  neither  shall  thine  eye  pity  him, 
neither  shalt  thou  spare,  neither  shalt  thou  conceal  him. 
But  thou  shalt  surely  kill  him ;  thine  hand  shall  be  first 
upon  him  to  put  him  to  death,  and  afterward  the  hand  of 
all  the  people.  And  thou  shalt  stone  him  with  stones, 
that  he  die." 

While  the  children  of  Israel  were  in  the  wilderness, 
they  found  a  man  that  gathered  sticks  upon  tlie  Sabbath 
day.  "And  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  Tlie  man  shall 
surely  be  put  to  death.  All  the  congregation  shall  stone 
him  with  stones  without  the  camp.  And  all  the  congre- 
gation brought  him  without  the  camp,  and  stoned  him 
with  stones,  and  he  died." 

The  remarkable  familiarity  with  God  which  character- 
ized patriarchal  times,  is  likewise  conspicuous  in  the  his- 
tory of  Moses.  Hebrew  Scriptures  declare  that  "  the  Lord 
spake  unto  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man  speaketh  unto  his 
friend."  On  one  occasion,  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  seventy 
of  the  elders  of  Israel,  went  up  unto  the  Lord.  "  And 
they  saw  the  God  of  Israel:  and  there  was  under  his  feet 
as  it  were  a  paved  work  of  a  sapphire  stone,  and  as  it 
were  the  body  of  heaven  in  his  clearness.  And  upon  the 
nobles  of  the  children  of  Israel  he  laid  not  his  hand ;  also 
they  saw  God,  and  did  eat  and  drink."  On  another  occa- 
sion, Moses  said  unto  the  Lord  :  "  I  beseech  thee  show  me 
thy  glory.  And  the  Lord  said.  Thou  canst  not  see  my 
flice;  for  there  shall  no  man  see  me  and  live.  Behold 
there  is  a  place  by  me,  and  thou  shalt  stand  upon  a  rock, 
and  I  will  cover  thee  with  my  hand  as  I  pass  by  ;  and  I 
will  take  away  mine  hand,  and  thou  shalt  see  my  back 
parts;  but  my  face  shall  not  be  seen." 

Among  all  ancient  nations,  mountains  were  venerated, 
partly  owing  to  the  awful  majesty  they  imparted  to 
scenery,  and  pailly  from  a  conviction  that  the  higher  the 
earth  ascended,  the  nearer  it  approached  the  residence  of 


JEWS.  405 

divine  beings,  and  the  more  certainty  was  there  that  they 
would  hear  the  invocations  and  jirayers  of  mortals,  llenco 
we  find  anchorites  and  pro})hets  of  all  lands  had  the  cus- 
tom of  ascending  mountains,  in  order  to  receive  spiritual 
communications.  Moses  went  up  Mount  Sinai  and  re- 
mained forty  days  in  the  midst  of  its  awful  solitudes,  to 
inquire  of  God  what  laws  he  should  give  the  Israelites; 
and  the  people  were  told  to  tany  for  him  in  the  valley 
below.  During  this  interview,  as  related  in  Hebrew 
Sacred  Books,  he  received  ten  commandments  graven  on. 
stone.  "  And  the  tables  ^vere  the  work  of  God,  and  the 
writing  was  the  writing  of  God."  Not  only  the  moral 
precepts  and  the  civil  code,  but  all  the  ceremonies,  and 
minutest  practical  details,  rules  for  weaving  cloth,  for 
trimming  the  hair  and  beard,  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  Ark,  fringes  on  the  priests'  garments,  the  number  of 
branches  on  the  golden  candlestick,  and  the  number  of 
knobs  on  each  branch,  were  all  prescribed  by  God,  in 
familiar  conversation  with  Moses.  When  envy  was  ex- 
cited because  Moses  held  the  office  of  Lawgiver,  and  his 
brother  Aaron  that  of  High  Pi'iest,  the  Lord  gave  Moses 
special  directions  how  to  act  in  this  emergency.  He  com- 
manded that  the  chief  of  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  should 
bring  a  branch  of  almond  tree  to  Moses,  who  was  in- 
structed to  write  every  man's  name  on  his  branch,  and 
deposit  them  all  in  the  Tabernacle.  And  the  Lord  pro- 
mised to  show  the  people  whom  he  had  chosen  for  the 
priest,  by  causing  his  branch  to  blossom  during  the  night. 
Accordingly,  in  the  morning,  the  branch  which  Aaron  had 
brought  for  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  covered  with  buds,  blos- 
soms, and  fruit;  and  by  this  miracle  the  family  of  Aaron 
became  an  hereditary  priesthood  during  the  national  ex- 
istence of  the  Hebrews. 

In  some  cases,  the  divine  commands  are  represented  of 
a  contradictory  character ;  as  when  God  commanded  the 
Israelites  to  borrow  ear-rings  and  other  jewels  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  carry  them  away,  though  He  had  jrevi 
ously  commanded  them  not  to  steal. 


•tOG  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

On  one  important  occasion,  the  Hebrew  lawgiver  acted 
upon  the  suggestion  of  Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  and  no 
mention  is  made  that  either  of  them  took  counsel  of  God. 
Jethro,  seeing  Moses  wearied  with  settling  the  innumera- 
ble cases  brought  before  him  from  morning  till  night, 
advised  him  to  choose  elders  from  among  the  people  to 
settle  minor  questions.  Moses  acted  upon  his  suggestion, 
and  appointed  seventy  elders,  called  the  Sanhedrim. 

Trial  by  ordeal  was  prescribed  in  the  law  of  Moses,  as 
it  was  in  the  Hindoo,  and  other  ancient  codes.  If  a  man 
was  jealous  of  his  wife  and  wished  to  test  her  innocence, 
it  was  ordained  that  he  should  bring  her  to  tlie  priest,  who 
took  "  holy  water  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  put  into  the 
water  dust  from  the  floor  of  the  Tabernacle."  He  then 
administered  an  oath  to  the  woman,  and  solemnly  pro- 
nounced curses  upon  her,  if  she  said  she  was  guiltless,  and 
swore  falsely.  He  wrote  the  curses  and  blotted  them  out 
with  the  water,  and  then  gave  it  to  the  accused  to  drink. 
"  And  the  Lord  said  to  Moses,  When  he  hath  made  her 
drink  the  water,  then  it  shall  come  to  pass  that  if  she 
have  done  trespass  against  her  husband,  the  water  that 
causeth  the  curse  shall  enter  into  her  and  become  bitter, 
and  her  belly  shall  swell,  and  her  thigh  shall  rot;  and  the 
woman  shall  be  a  curse  among  her  people." 

One  passage  in  the  Mosaic  dispensation  ap])ears  like  a 
recognition  of  human  sacrifices.  It  is  as  follows:  "No 
devoted  thing,  that  a  man  shall  devote  unto  the  Lord  of 
all  that  he  hath,  both  of  man  and  beast,  and  of  the  field 
of  his  possession,  shall  be  sold  or  redeemed.  Every  de- 
voted thing  is  most  holy  unto  the  Lord.  None  devoted,, 
whicli  shall  be  devoted  of  men,  shall  be  redeemed:  but 
shall  surely  be  })ut  to  death."  Jephthah  l>urnt  his  daughter 
as  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord  ;  but  there  is  no  record  that 
Moses  sanctioned  such  a  ])ractice,  or  that  it  prevailed 
among  the  Hebrews  at  any  period;  unless  the  slaughter 
commanded  by  Moses,  as  atonement  for  worshipping  the 
golden  calf,  be  considered  as  a  human  sacrilice.  He 
ordered  the  sons  of  Levi  to  "put  every  man  his  sword  by 


JEWS.  407 

his  side,  and  go  in  and  out  from  u-ato  to  i2'atc  tlirouulioiit 
the  camp,  and  slay  every  nian  his  brotlioi-,  and  cvi'i'v  man 
his  companion,  and  every  man  his  nci-hhoui-.  And  the 
children  of  Levi  did  according  to  the  word  of  Moses;  and 
there  fell  of  the  people  about  three  thousand  nu>n.  Foi 
Moses-  had  said,  Consecrate  yourselves  to-day  to  the  Lord, 
even  every  man  upon  his  son,  and  u[)on  his  br(jther;  that 
he  may  bestow  upon  3'ou  a  blessing  this  day."  The  first- 
born of  all  cattle  were  set  apart  to  be  sacrificed  to  the. 
Lord,  but  the  first-born  of  human  beings  were  redeemed 
by  consecrating  an  equal  number  of  men  to  the  religious 
services  of  the  Tabernacle.  This  substitution  was  the 
origin  of  the  order  of  Levites.  Moses  counted  the  whole 
tribe  of  Levi,  and  then  counted  all  the  first-born  of  the 
Israelites,  from  a  month  old  and  upward.  The  first-born 
of  the  people  exceeded  the  tribe  of  Levi,  by  two  hundred 
and  seventy-three;  and  these  were  redeemed  by  paying 
five  shekels  each  to  the  priests.  The  same  sum  continued 
ever  after  to  be  paid  for  all  first-born  children.  All  the 
tribe  of  Levi  were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God  ;  and 
this  was  considered  in  the  light  of  an  atoning  sacrifice  for 
the  sins  of  the  whole  people.  But  as  they  were  not  put 
to  death,  and  as  it  was  supposed  God  required  blood  for 
atonement,  two  bullocks  were  sacrificed  in  their  stead. 
The  Levites  laid  their  hands  upon  the  heads  of  these  vic- 
tims, that  the  sins,  which  the  whole  nation  laid  upon  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  might  be  transferred  to  the  beasts,  whose 
blood  was  shed  as  an  expiation.  God  said  to  Moses  :  "  The 
life  of  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood;  and  I  have  given  it  to  you 
upon  the  altar  to  make  an  atonement  for  your  souls ;  for 
it  is  the  blood  that  maketh  atonement  for  the  soul." 

Li  the  Avritings  ascribed  to  Moses,  nothing  is  said  con- 
cerning the  immortality  of  the  soul,  nor  is  there  any 
record  by  which  his  opinions  on  that  subject  could  be 
ascertained.  The  rewards  promised  to  the  Israelites,  and 
the  punishments  threatened,  are  altogether  of  a  temjioral 
nature.  It  is  declared  that  "  God  will  visit  the  sins  of  the 
fatheis  upon  the  children,  unto  the  third  and  fourth  gen- 


408  PKOGRESS   OF   KELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

eration."  "  If  thou  shalt  hearken  diligently  unto  the  voice 
of  the  Lord  thy  God,  to  observe  and  do  all  his  command- 
ments, the  Lord  shall  make  thee  plenteous  in  goods,  in  the 
fruit  of  thy  body,  and  in  the  fruit  of  thy  cattle,  and  in  the 
fruit  of  thy  ground.  The  Lord  shall  cause  thine  enemies 
that  rise  up  against  thee  to  be  smitten  before  thy  face : 
they  shall  come  out  against  thee  one  way,  and  flee  before 
thee  seven  ways.  Thou  shalt  lend  unto  many  nations, 
and  thou  shalt  not  borrow.  And  the  Lord  shall  make 
thee  the  head,  and  not  the  tail.  But  if  thou  wilt  not 
hearken  unto  the  Lord  thy  God,  to  observe  and  do  all  ^lis 
commandments  and  statutes,  cursed  shall  be  thy  basket 
and  thy  store.  Cursed  shall  be  the  fruit  of  thy  body,  and 
the  fruit  of  thy  land,  the  increase  of  thy  kine,  and  the 
flocks  of  thy  sheep.  The  Lord  will  smite  thee  with  con- 
sumption, and  fever,  and  inflammation,  and  extreme  burn- 
ing, and  with  the  sword,  and  with  blasting,  and  mildew. 
And  the  Lord  shall  cause  thee  to  be  smitten  before  thy 
enemies :  thou  shalt  go  out  one  way  against  them,  and  flee 
seven  ways  before  them.  The  Lord  will  smite  thee  with 
the  botch  of  Egypt,  with  the  emerods,  with  the  scab,  and 
with  the  itch,  whereof  thou  canst  not  be  healed.  The 
Lord  shall  smite  thee  with  madness,  and  blindness,  and 
astonishment  of  heart.  Also  evei-y  sickness,  and  every 
plague,  which  is  not  written  in  the  book  of  this  Law,  them 
will  the  Lord  bring  upon  thee,  until  thou  be  destroyed. 
As  the  Lord  rejoiced  over  you  to  do  you  good,  and  to 
multiply  you,  so  the  Lord  will  rejoice  over  you  to  destroy 
you,  and  to  bring  you  to  naught." 

That  the  policy  of  Moses  was  illiberal  toward  foreigners, 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  circumstances  in  which  he  was 
placed.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  and  far-sighted 
man,  greatly  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived;  but 
lie  had  to  deal  with  ignorant  and  barbai'ous  tribes,  incapa- 
ble of  appreciating  his  motives,  or  understanding  the  high 
d(\stiny  marked  out  for  tiicm.  All  the  (Miei-gics  of  his 
gieat  soul  were  emj)l()yed  to  lorni  them  into  a  distinct 
nation,  and  raise  their  religious  ideas  above  the  worship 


JEWS.  •  409 

of  images.  To  promote  these  objects,  it  was  necessary  to 
forbid  marriage  with  other  nations  and  tribes,  to  incalcate 
detestation  of  their  worship,  to  discourage  commerce,  to 
avoid  foreign  literature  and  the  arts,  with  all  of  which  the 
worship  of  imag(?s  was  intimately  connected.  In  preserv- 
ing themselves  a  distinct  and  peculiar  people,  the  Hebrews 
necessarily  became  narrow  and  exclusive.  In  all  their 
regulations,  there  was  a  marked  distinction  between  them- 
selves and  foreigners.  At  the  end  of  every  seven  years, 
all  debts  due  from  one  Hebrew  to  another  were  released  ; 
but  debts  due  from  a  foreigner  might  be  exacted.  If  a 
Hebrew  became  very  poor,  he  might  sell  himself,  and  one 
of  his  own  nation  might  buy  him  for  a  term  of  years; 
"not  as  a  bondservant,  but  as  an  hired  servant."  At  the 
end  of  every  seven  j^ears  he  might  go  out  free,  if  he 
wished,  and  the  master  was  enjoined  to  sup])ly  him  liber- 
ally with  grain,  wine,  and  flocks.  Tlie  Lord  said  to 
Moses:  "They  shall  not  be  sold  as  bontlmen.  Both  thy 
bondmen  and  thy  bondmaids  shall  be  of  the  heathen  that 
are  round  about  you.  Of  the  children  of  the  strangers  shall 
ye  buy.  And  ye  shall  take  them  as  an  inheritance  for 
your  children  after  you,  to  inherit  them  for  a  possession; 
they  shall  be  your  bondmen  forever.  But  over  your 
brethren  the  children  of  Israel  3^e  shall  not  rule  with 
rigour."  Though  it  was  not  allowable  for  one  Hebrew  to 
sell  another  to  a  person  of  any  otlier  nation,  a  poor  Hebrew 
might  sell  himself  as  a  servant  to  a  rich  sojourner,  who 
dwelt  in  the  midst  of  them;  but  he  had  the  privilege  of 
being  redeemed  at  any  time,  either  by  himself  or  his  rela- 
tives. There  were  gleams  of  a  kindly  spirit  even  toward 
foreigners.  Moses  ordained  :  "  If  a  stranger  dwelleth  with 
you  in  your  land,  yc  shall  not  vex  him.  lie  shall  be  unto 
you  as  one  born  among  3^ou ;  and  thou  shalt  love  him  as 
thyself;  for  ye  were  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt."  In 
all  that  related  to  their  own  internal  policy,  great  liberality 
is  manifested.  All  the  regulations  tended  to  promote 
equal  distribution,  moderate  abundance,  respect  for  do- 
mestic institutions,  and  unstinted  kindness  to  the  poor 
Vol.  I.— 35  s 


410  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

If  a  man  had  built  a  new  house  and  not  dedicated  it,  or 
planted  a  vineyard  and  not  eaten  of  it,  or  married  a  wife 
and  not  taken  her  home,  he  was  not  required  to  go  forth 
with  the  tribes  to  battle,  lest  he  should  die  without  a  taste 
of  his  promised  happiness.  To  prevent  the  land  from 
passing  into  the  hands  of  strangers,  or  becoming  accumu- 
lated in  large  estates  belonging  to  a  few  of  the  wealthy, 
there  was  a  great  Jubilee  appointed  every  seven  times  seven 
years.  If  any  Hebrew  had  sold  his  estate,  and  been  unable 
to  redeem  it,  the  land  was  returned  to  him,  or  his  heirs, 
at  the  Jubilee.  All  Hebrews  who  were  sold  as  servants, 
either  to  their  own  people,  or  to  sojourners,  became  free  at 
that  joyful  festival.  The  Lord  said  :  "Thou  slialt  hallow 
the  fiftieth  year,  and  proclaim  liberty  throughout  all  the 
land,  and  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof.  Ye  shall  re- 
turn every  man  unto  his  possessions,  and  unto  his  family." 
"The  land  shall  not  be  sold  for  ever;  for  the  land  is  mine, 
saith  the  Lord."  •  "  Thou  shalt  not  make  clean  riddance 
of  the  corners  of  thy  field,  when  thou  reapest  the  harvest 
of  thy  land,  neither  shalt  thou  gather  any  gleaning  of  thy 
harvest.  If  thou  hast  forgot  a  sheaf  in  the  field,  thou 
shalt  not  e"o  aarain  to  fetch  it.  Thou  slialt  leave  thein  unto 
the  poor  and  the  stranger.  When  thou  beatest  thine  olive 
tree,  thou  shalt  not  go  over  the  boughs  again;  it  shall  be 
for  the  stranger,  for  the  fatherless,  and  for  the  widow. 
When  thou  gatherest  the  grapes  of  thy  vineyard,  thou 
shalt  not  glean  it  afterward;  it  shall  be  for  the  stranger, 
the  fatherless,  and  the  widow."  In  addition  to  these 
benevolent  provisions  for  every  year,  a  portion  of  the 
proceeds  of  ever}^  man's  land  was  set  apart  for  the  poor 
every  third  year.  Six  "Cities  of  Ilefuge"  were  provided, 
where  he  who  had  killed  a  man  might  remain  in  safety, 
till  the  matter  was  fairly  investigated  by  established 
tril)unals.  The  ])urity  of  women  was  carefully  guarded 
I'rom  sucli  customs  as  contaminated  the  worship  of  many 
neighbouring  countries.  For  these  humane  and  e(|ualizing 
regulations,  lor  teaching  the  same  I'cligion  to  priests  and 
people,  and  for  holding  up  the  doctrine  of  one  Supremo 


JEWS.  411 

Being,  in  the  midst  of  most  discouraging  obstacles,  our 
gratitude  and  reverence  are  due  to  Moses,  Deservedly  he 
stands  conspicuous  among  the  agents,  whom  God  has 
chosen  in  all  ages,  and  from  all  nations,  to  bring  the  world 
gradually  out  of  darkness  into  light. 

After  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  led  the  people  over 
Jordan,  and  conquered  many  of  the  tribes  of  Canaan, 
lie  taught  the  Israelites,  as  his  predecessor  had  done,  that 
they  were  the  chosen  agents  of  Jehovah,  to  exterminate 
idolaters  and  take  possession  of  their  lands.  But  tribes, 
who  had  cities  and  vineyards  thus  violently  wrested  from 
them  by  foreign  invaders,  naturally  viewed  the  subject  in 
another  light.  Procopius,  a  Greek  historian,  native  of 
Cassarea,  in  Palestine,  supposed  to  have  died  six  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  our  era,  speaking  of  a  nation  in  Libya, 
says:  "They  were  the  Gergesites,  Gebusites,  and  other 
nations,  who  were  driven  out  of  Palestine,  by  Joshua  the 
son  of  Nave."  [Nun.J  He  testifies  that  he  himself  saw  the 
following  sentence,  engraved  in  Phoenician  characters, 
near  a  fountain  in  Libya:  "We  are  they  who  fled  from 
the  face  of  Joshua  the  robber,  the  son  of  Nave."  The 
author  of  Ecclesiasticus  calls  Joshua  the  "son  of  Nave," 
that  being  a  change  in  the  name  by  Jews  who  spoke 
Greek. 

When  Grecians  represented  their  deities  as  conniving 
at  falsehood,  and  assisting  to  break  solemn  treaties,  their 
perfidy  was  sanctified  to  popular  imagination,  by  its  being 
always  done  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  who  believed  them- 
selves especial  favourites  of  the  gods.  In  a  similar  spirit, 
Hebrews  represented  Jehovah  as  commanding  his  chosen 
people  to  steal  from  the  Egyptians,  and  to  kill  by  thou- 
sands, men,  women,  and  infants,  from  whom  they  had 
received  no  injury;  and  when  the  bloody  work  was  accom- 
plished, they  devoutly  thanked  the  Lord,  because  he  had 
given  them  "vineyards  they  had  not  planted,  and  harvests 
they  had  not  sowed." 

Hebrew  Sacred  Books  declare  that  Joshua  was  "full  of 
the  spirit  of  wisdom ;  for  Moses  had  laid  his  hands  upon 


412  PROGKESS    OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS, 

him :  and  the  children  of  Israel  hearkened  unto  him,  and 
did  as  the  Lord  commanded  Moses."  He  also  is  said  to 
have  acted  under  the  immediate  and  perpetual  guidance 
of  Deity.  "  After  the  death  of  Moses,  it  came  to  pass 
that  Jehovah  spake  unto  Joshua." 

Concerning  the  rite  of  circumcision,  we  are  told  that 
"the  Lord  said  unto  Joshua,  Make  thee  sharp  knives  and 
circumcise  the  children  of  Israel  the  second  time.  And 
this  is  the  cause  why  Joshua  did  circumcise.  All  the 
people  that  came  out  of  Egypt  were  circumcised,  and  they 
had  all  died  in  the  wilderness  by  the  way ;  but  all  those 
that  were  born  in  the  wilderness  they  had  not  circam- 
cised."  The  fact  that  Egyptians  considered  all  uncircum- 
cised  men  unclean,  is  implied  in  the  record  of  this  transac- 
tion ;  for  after  the  rite  had  been  performed  on  all  the 
Hebrews,  "  the  Lord  said  to  Joshua,  This  day  have  I 
rolled  away  the  reproach  of  Egypt  from  off"  you." 

The  directions  Joshua  received  from  God  are  .character- 
ized by  the  same  austerity  as  those  to  Moses.  He  was 
commanded  to  exterminate  the  Canaanites;  "to  destroy 
them  utterl}^,  and  leave  nothing  to  breathe."  When  one 
of  the  Hebrew  soldiers  concealed  under  his  tent  some  gold 
and  silver  taken  from  images  or  temples,  among  the  spoils 
of  war,  "  the  Lord  commanded  Joshua  to  burn  him,  and 
all  that  he  had,  with  fire.  So  Joshua,  and  all  Israel  with 
hiin,  took  him,  and  liis  sons,  and  his  daughters,  and  his 
oxen,  and  his  asses,  and  his  sheep,  and  his  tents,  and  all 
that  he  had,  and  all  Israel  stoned  them  with  stones,  and 
burned  them  with  fire,  after  they  had  stoned  them  with 
stones." 

Th(i  '^rabcrnacle  had  been  carried  with  the  Isrnelites  in 
all  their  wanderings  tlirough  the  wilderness.  AVherever 
it  restetl,  there  they  pitched  tlieir  tents;  and  whenever  it 
moved,  though  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  they  rose  and 
followed  it.  This  j^rompt  obedience  originated  in  their 
lK!lic;f  that  it  was  God's  house,  where  he  actually  dwelt; 
and  that  He  himself  went  before  them  as  a  gui(l(\  in  the 
form  of  a  cloud   by  day,   and  a  })illar  of  fire  by   night. 


JEWS.  413 

Joshua  broiiglit  the  Tabernacle  into  the  Land  of  Canaan. 
Seven  years  it  remained  at  Gilgal,  guarded  by  a  strong 
force,  while  the  Israelites  encamped  there.  When  thev 
went  to  battle,  the  Ark  Avas  taken  out  of  it  and  carried 
before  them,  that  the  Lord  might  be  always  present  with 
them,  ready  to  be  consulted  in  case  of  difficult  emergencies. 
When  Israel  had  more  quiet  possession  of  the  land  of 
Canaan,  the  Tabernacle  was  removed  to  Shiloh,  and  en- 
closed within  walls.  At  Mount  Ebal,  Joshua  built  an  altar 
of  whole  stones,  and  wrote  on  the  stones  a  copy  of  the 
Law  of  Moses,  and  "read  all  the  words  before  all  the 
congregation  of  Israel,  with  the  women  and  the  little  ones, 
and  the  strangers  that  were  conversant  among  them.  And 
they  offered  upon  the  altar  burnt-offerings,  and  sacrifices, 
and  peace-offerings,  to  the  Lord  God  of  Israel." 

The  Hebrews,  and  "the  mixed  multitude"  who,  accord- 
ing to  their  Sacred  Records,  came  up  with  them  from 
Egypt,  were  so  imbued  with  the  customs  of  that  country, 
that  even  Aaron  consented  to  make  a  golden  calf  for  them 
to  worship,  and  himself  erected  an  altar  before  it.  Not- 
witlistanding  the  severe  edicts  of  Moses,  and  the  efforts  of 
Joshua  to  impress  them  on  the  minds  of  the  people,  they 
manifested  in  Canaan  the  same  |)roneness  to  idolatry. 
Joshua  found  it  necessary  to  assemble  the  tribes  and 
earnestly  remind  them  of  the  temporal  blessings  they  had 
received  fi-om  their  tutelary  God:  "Thus  saith  the  Lord 
God  of  Israel,  I  brought  3'our  fathers  out  of  Egypt.  And 
I  brought  you  into  the  land  of  the  Amorites.  And  I  sent 
the  hornet  before  you,  which  drove  them  out  before  you, 
even  the  two  kings  of  the  Amorites;  but  not  with  thy 
sword,  nor  with  thy  bow.  And  I  have  given  you  a  land 
for  which  ye  did  not  labour,  and  cities  which  ye  built  not, 
and  ye  dwelt  in  them;  of  vineyards  and  olive  yards, 
which  ye  planted  not,  do  ye  eat."  And  Joshua  said: 
"Now  tlierefore  fear  the  Lord,  and  serve  him  in  sincerity 
and  truth  ;  and  put  away  the  gods,  which  your  fathers 
seiwed  on  the  other  side  of  the  flood,  [the  river  Euphrates] 
and  in  Egypt.  But  if  it  seem  evil  to  you  to  serve  the 
Vol.  i.— 35* 


414  PROGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Lord,  choose  ye  this  day  whom  ye  will  serve ;  but  as  for 
me  and  my  house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord.  And  the 
people  answered,  The  Lord  our  God  brought  our  fathers 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  drove  out  from  before  us  all 
the  people,  even  tlie  Amorites,  which  dwelt  in  the  land; 
therefore  will  we  serve  the  Lord.  And  Joshua  said  to  the 
people,  He  is  a  jealous  God ;  he  will  not  forgive  your 
transgressions  nor  your  sins.  If  ye  forsake  him  and  serve 
strange  gods,  he  will  turn  and  do  you  hurt,  and  consume 
you,  after  that  he  hath  done  you  good.  Now  therefore 
put  away  the  strange  gods  that  are  among  you,  and  incline 
your  heart  to  the  God  of  Israel.  And  the  people  said, 
We  will  serve  the  Lord  our  God,  and  his  voice  will  we 
obey.  And  Joshua  made  a  covenant  with  the  people,  and 
set  then"!  a  statute  and  an  ordinance,  and  wrote  the  words 
in  the  book  of  the  Law  of  God,  and  took  a  great  stone 
and  set  it  up  there  under  an  oak,  that  was  by  the  sanc- 
tuary of  the  Lord.  And  he  said.  This  stone  hath  heard 
all  the  words  of  the  Lord,  which  he  spake  unto  us;  it 
shall  therefore  be  a  witness  unto  you,  lest  ye  deny  your 
God." 

Hebrew  records  declare  that  tlie  veiy  next  generation  of 
"  the  children  of  Israel  forsook  the  Lord  God  of  their 
fathers,  and  served  Baal  and  Ashtaroth."  The  first  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  Chaldean  representative  of  the 
Sun,  and  the  other  the  Syrian  representative  eitlier  of  the 
Moon,  or  of  the  planet  Venus.  Wild  and  troubled  times 
followed  the  death  of  Josliua.  Israelites  intermarried  with 
neighbouring  tribes,  and  "forgat  the  Lord  their  God,  and 
served  Baalim  and  the  groves.  Therefore  the  anger  of  the 
Lord  waxed  hot  against  Israel."  The  king  of  Mesopotamia 
conquered  them,  and  they  served  him  eight  years  before 
they  were  delivered  out  of  his  hand.  Foi-ty  years  after, 
the  king  of  Moab  conquered  them,  and  they  served  iiim 
eighteen  years.  He  was  finally  murdered  by  one  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  the  Israelites  had  rest  for  eighty 
years.  After  that,  they  were  conquered  by  the  king  of 
Canaan.      At    that    period,    Hebrews  were    governed    by 


JEWS.  415 

judges ;  and  it  is  a  very  remar'cable  feature  in  such  un- 
settled times  that  "  Deborali,  a  proplietess,  the  wife  of 
Lapidoth,  judged  Israel."  By  pursuing  her  advice  the 
king  of  Canaan  was  conquered,  and  "  the  land  had  rest 
forty  years."  Then  the  Midianites  conquered  Israel  and 
kept  thein  in  subjection  sf.veu  years,  so  that  they  were 
compelled  to  "hide  in  dens  in  the  mountains."  In  their 
distress,  they  cried  unto  the  Lord,  and  a  prophet  named 
Gideon  rose  up  to  remind  them  of  the  God  who  brought 
their  fiithers  out  of  Egypt.  "  The  Lord  said  unto  Gideon, 
Throw  down  the  altar  of  Baal,  which  thy  father  hath,  and 
cut  down  the  grove  that  is  by  it;  and  buihi  an  altar  unto 
the  Lord  th}^  God,  and  take  thy  father's  young  bullock  and 
offer  a  burnt-sac  ifice  with  the  wood  of  the  grove,  which 
thou  shalt  cut  down."  Gideon  obeyed  the  command;  but 
so  popular  were  the  foreign  gods,  that  he  did  it  in  the 
night-time,  not  daring  to  do  it  by  day.  When  the  men 
of  the  city  discovered  wlio  had  done  it,  they  insisted  he 
should  be  put  to  death ;  but  his  father  warded  off  the  pre- 
sent danger,  and  Gideon  afterward  secured  tlie  affections 
of  the  people  by  fighting  successfully  against  the  Midi- 
anites. He  requested  the  men  of  Israel  to  bring  him  all 
the  golden  ear-rings  they  took  with  the  spoils  of  war,  and 
they  willingly  gave  them,  "  beside  ornaments,  and  collars, 
and  purple  raiment,  that  was  on  the  kings  of  Midian,  and 
chains  that  were  about  their  camels'  necks.  And  Gideon 
made  an  ephod  thereof,  and  put  it  in  his  city."  There  is 
no  explanation  concerning  the  use  made  of  this  ephod,  but 
the  natural  supposition  would  be  that  it  was  consulted  as 
an  oracle.  That  it  came  in  some  way  to  be  regarded  as  an 
idol,  is  implied  by  the  remark  tliat  "all  Israel  went  thither 
a  whoring  after  it;  which  thing  became  a  snare  unto 
Gideon  and  his  house." 

"  As  soon  as  Gideon  was  dead,  the  children  of  Israel 
turned  again,  and  went  a  whoring  after  Baalim,  and  made 
Baal-berith  their  God."  When  the  Ammonites  conquered 
them,  "  and  vexed  and  oppressed  them  eighteen  years," 
they  began  again  to  cry  unto  the  Lord.     But  "the  Lord 


416  rROGKP:ss  of  heligious  ideas. 

said,  Go  and  cry  unto  tho  gods  wliicli  ye  have  chosen. 
Let  them  deliver  you  in  the  time  of  your  tribulation. 
And  the  children  of  Israel  said,  We  have  sinned  against 
thee,  both  because  we  have  forsaken  our  God,  and  also 
served  Baalim.  And  they  put  away  the  strange  gods 
from  among  them,  and  served  the  Lord ;  and  his  soul  was 
grieved  for  the  misery  of  Israel."  Jephthah,  "a  mighty 
man  of  valour,"  was  raised  up  to  rescue  his  countrymen 
from  the  Ammonites.  He  ruled  over  Israel  six  years,  as 
judge  and  general.  In  his  history  occurs  the  only  instance 
of  human  sacrifice  recorded  in  the  Hebrew  Sacred  Writings. 
Before  he  went  forth  to  battle,  he  made  a  vow  that  if  "he 
were  victorious,  he  Avould  sacrifice  to  God,  as  a  burnt- 
offering,  whatever  should  first  come  forth  from  his  house 
to  meet  hirn  on  his  return.  His  daughter,  his  only  child, 
came  out  to  welcome  him,  and  "he  did  with  her  according 
to  his  vow."  This  circumstance  is  told  in  the  Book  of 
Judges,  without  any  expressions  of  disapprobation. 

During  the  times  of  Joshua  and  the  Judges,  the  visits 
of  anejels  are  still  described  as  common  occurrences.  "  It 
came  to  pass  when  Joshua  was  near  Jericho,  that  he  lifted 
up  his  eyes  and  looked,  and  behold  a  man  was  standing 
beside  him  with  his  sword  drawn  in  his  hand.  And  Joshua 
went  to  him  and  said,  Art  thou  for  us,  or  for  our  foes? 
And  he  said.  Neither;  for  I  am  come  as  the  prince  of 
Jehovah's  host.  And  Joshua  fell  on  his  face  to  the  earth, 
and  did  homage  to  him,  and  said.  What  would  my  Lord 
say  to  his  servant?  And  the  prince  of  Jehovah's  host  said 
to  Joshua,  Loose  the  shoe  from  thy  foot,  for  the  place  thou 
standest  upon  is  holy."  An  angel,  who  came  up  from 
Gilgal  to  admonish  the  nation,  speaks  as  if  he  were  Jehovah 
himself,  saying:  "I  made  you  go  out  of  Egypt."  An 
angel  of  the  Tiord  came  and  sat  under  an  oak,  and  talked 
with  Gideoi^  while  ho  was  threshing  wheat.  Gideon  pre- 
])ared  food  for  him,  and  was  told  to  spread  it  on  the  rock. 
When  the  angel  touched  it  with  his  stalf,  fire  came  out  of 
the  rock  and  consumed  the  food,  and  the  angel  vanished, 
Such  visits  a])p('ar   to   have  been    regarded  as  omens  of 


JEWS.  417 

deatli ;  for  Gideon  was  alanncil,  ami  said:  "Alas,  because 
I  have  seen  an  angel  of  the  Lord  face  to  face!"  And  the 
Lord  said  to  him:  "Fear  not;  thou  shalt  not  die."  An 
angel  appeared  to  the  wife  of  Manoah  and  })redieted  the 
birth  of  Samson.  She  described  him  to  her  husband  as 
"a  man  of  God,  whose  countenance  was  like  an  angel  of 
God,  very  terrible."  Afterward  he  appeared  to  her  again, 
and  she  ran  to  call  her  husband,  who  offered  liim  food; 
"  for  he  knew  not  that  he.  was  an  angel  of  the  Lord." 
The  mysterious  visitor  refused  to  eat,  or  tell  his  name ; 
but  commanded  that  the  kid  prepared  for  food  should  be 
burnt  on  the  rock,  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord;  and  when 
the  flame  rose,  the  angel  ascended  in  it.  Manoali  and  his 
wife  fell  on  their  fliccs  to  the  ground,  and  said:  "  We  shall 
surely  die,  because  we  have  seen  God." 

A  regular,  established  priesthood  was  incompatible  with 
such  unsettled  times.  Men  consecrated  their  own  priests, 
who  were  sometimes  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  sometimes  of 
other  tribes.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  people  received 
little  instruction  in  the  Laws  of  Moses,  for  it  is  obvious 
enough  that  they  were  perpetually  infringed,  without 
meeting  the  punishment  he  affi.xed  to  such  offences.  It  is 
recorded  that  a  man  of  Mount  Ephraim,  whose  name  was 
Micah,  took  eleven  hundred  shekels  of  silver  from  his 
mother,  and  afterward  restored  them,  confessing  the  theft. 
"And  his  mother  took  two  hundred  shekels  of  the  silver, 
and  gave  them  to  the  founder,  who  made  thereof  a  graven 
image  and  a  molten  image ;  and  they  were  in  the  house 
of  Micah.  And  Micah  had  an  house  of  gods,  and  made 
an  ephod,  and  teraphim,  and  consecrated  one  of  his  sons, 
who  became  his  priest.  "  And  a  young  man  of  the  family 
of  Judah,  who  was  a  Levite,  came  to  the  house  of  Micah 
and  sojourned  there.  And  Micah  said,  Dwell  with  me, 
and  be  unto  me  a  father  and  a  priest,  and  I  will  give  thee 
ten  shekels  of  silver  by  the  year,  and  a  suit  of  apparel,  and 
thy  victuals.  And  the  Levite  was  content  to  dwell  with 
the  man,  and  Micah  consecrated  the  Levite,  and  he  became 
his  priest."     He  was  probably  called  a  Levite  merely  be- 


418  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

cause  lie  was  acquainted  with  the  prescribed  Levitical 
ritual ;  for  he  is  said  to  have  been  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
Tluit  it  was  considered  fortunate  to  obtain  possession  of 
such  a  private  chaplain,  is  iniplied  by  Micah's  remark: 
"  Now  I  know  the  Lord  will  do  me  good,  seeing  I  have  a 
Levite  to  my  priest."  Yet  Moses  would  have  "stoned 
him  with  stones  till  he  died ;"  for  he  was  priest  to  "a  graven 
image  and  a  molten  image." 

At  that  time  the  tribe  of  Dan  were  looking  about  to 
seize  land  wherever  it  best  suited  them  to  dwell.  Hebrew 
Sacred  Books  tell  us  that  when  their  messengers  came  to 
Laish,  they  found  that  the  inhabitants  thereof  dwelt  quiet 
and  secure,  had  no  commerce  with  other  men,  were  too  far 
from  the  Sidonians  to  be  protected  by  them,  and  had  no 
magistrate  in  the  land  to  put  strangers  to  shame  for  any- 
thing they  might  do.  These  were  deemed  suitable  reasons 
for  seizing  on  their  possessions  for  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  the  pioneers  went  back  and  gave  infor- 
mation concerning  the  state  of  tilings,  their  brethren 
mustered  six  hundred  men,  with  weapons  of  war,  and 
went  to  attack  Laish.  Their  ancestors  had  slaughtered 
rncn,  women,  and  children,  because  Moses  and  Joshua 
tuld  them  it  was  the  divine  command  that  they  should 
utterly  exterminate  idolaters.  But"  these  warriors  were 
impelled  by  no  such  zeal  in  the  service  of  one  invisible 
God.  For  when  they  came  to  Mount  Ephraim,  and  passed 
the  house  of  Micah,  the  messenger,  who  had  previously 
been  sent  to  spy  out  the  land,  said:  "  Do  ye  know  there 
is  in  these  houses  an  cphod,  and  teraphim,  and  a  graven 
image,  and  a  molten  image?  And  they  came  in  thither 
and  took  the  graven  image,  and  the  nit)lten  image,  the 
ephod,  and  the  teraphim.  Then  said  the  priest  unto  them, 
AVhat  do  ye?  And  they  said,  IL^ld  thy  peace;  lay  thine 
hand  upon  thy  mouth,  and  go  with  us.  Is  it  better  for 
thee  to  be  a  priest  unto  one  man,  or  that  thou  be  a  priest 
unto  a  tribe  and  a  family  in  Israel?  And  the  priest's 
heart  was  glad ;  and  he  took  the  ephod,  and  the  teraphim, 
and  the  graven   image,   and  went   in   the   midst  of  the 


JEWS.  419 

people.  Wlicn  they  were  a  good  way  from  the  house, 
Micah  and  his  nci"libours  overtook  them.  And  Micah 
said,  Ye  have  taken  away  my  gods  which  I  made,  and  the 
priest  and  ye  are  gone  away;  and  what  have  I  more? 
And  the  children  of  Dan  said  unto  him,  Let  not  thy  voice 
be  heard  among  us,  lest  angry  fellows  run  upon  thee,  and 
thou  lose  thy  life,  with  the  lives  of  thy  household.  And 
when  Micah  saw  they  were  too  strong  for  him,  he  turned 
and  went  back  to  his  house.  And  the  children  of  Dan 
went  their  way,  and  came  unto  Laish,  unto  a  people  that 
were  quiet  and  secure,  and  they  smote  them  with  the 
edge  of  the  sword,  and  burnt  their  city  with  fire.  And 
they  called  the  city  Dan,  after  the  name  of  their  father, 
who  was  born  unto  Israel,  And  they  set  up  Micah's 
graven  image,  and  Jonathan  and  his  sons  were  priests  to 
the  tribe  of  Dan,"  The  people  publicly  resorted  thither, 
to  worship  and  consult  the  teraphim  of  Micah,  until  the 
tribes  of  Israel  were  cari'ied  away  captive. 

We  are  told  that,  in  the  days  of  the  Judges,  "  every 
man  did  that  which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes;"  and  some 
of  their  recorded  transactions  certainly  prove  a  very 
savage  state  of  societ}^  There  is  a  story  related  in  Hebrew 
Sacred  Books,  concerning  a  young  Levite,  who  v/as  bring- 
ing home  his  concubine  from  his  father's  house  in  Bethle- 
hem-Judah,  In  the  course  of  their  journey,  the}^  came 
among  the  Benjamitcs,  who  had  not  sufficient  hospitality 
to  offer  them  a  shelter  for  the  night.  An  old  man  of 
Mount  Ephraim,  seeing  them  in  the  street,  invited  them  to 
his  house.  In  the  course  of  the  night,  some  Benjamites 
came  and  beat  at  the  door,  and  made  indecent  demands 
concerning  the  traveller.  Frightened  by  their  violence, 
he  at  last  ay-reed  to  let  them  have  his  concubine.     The 

O 

poor  woman  died  in  the  hands  of  the  brutal  multitude, 
and  in  the  morning  her  corpse  was  found  at  the  door.  Her 
husband  cut  her  in  pieces,  and  sent  a  fragment  to  each  of 
the  tribes  of  Israel,  calling  upon  them  to  revenge  the 
wickedness  done  by  some  of  the  Benjamites.  In  obedience 
to    this    summons,   the   tribes  came   up   to  battle   against 


420  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Bertjamin;  but  they  were  defeated,  with  twenty-two  thou 
sand  shain.  Phineas,  the  priest,  a  descendant  of  Aaron 
stood  before  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  where  oraeles  were 
received  from  God.  There  "  he  asked  counsel  of  the 
Lord,  saying.  Shall  we  again  go  up  to  battle  against  the 
children  of  Benjamin  our  brother?  And  the  Lord  said, 
Go  up  against  them."  Accordingly,  they  went  forth  the 
second  day,  and  were  defeated,  with  eighteen  thousand 
slain.  The  priest  again  inquired  at  the  Ark  whether  the 
children  of  Israel  should  go  to  battle  against  Benj^miin. 
And  the  Lord  answered,  "Go  up  against  him."  They 
attacked  the  Benjamites  a  third  time,  and  destroj^ed 
twenty-five  thousand  and  a  hundred  of  them.  The  sequel 
of  the  story  implies  that  the  women  of  Benjamin,  though 
not  implicated  in  the  olfence,  were  slaughtered  almost  to 
extermination.  "The  men  of  Israel  had  sworn  in  Mizpeh, 
saying,  There  shall  not  any  of  us  give  his  daughter  unto 
Benjamin  to  wife."  But  after  the  Benjamites  were  near)}'- 
destroyed,  "  the  people  wept  sore,  saying,  0  Lord  God  of 
Israel,  why  has  this  come  to  pass,  that  there  should  be  one 
tribe  lacking  in  Israel?  They  repented  them  for  Benja- 
min their  brother,  and  said,  How  shall  we  do  for  wives 
for  them  that  remain,  seeing  we  have  sworn  by  the  Lord 
that  we  will  not  give  them  of  our  daughters  for  wives?" 
In  this  dilemma  they  concluded  to  send  twelve  thousand 
valiant  men  to  attack  Jabesli  Gilead,  and  destroy  all  the 
men,  and  all  the  married  women.  They  did  so,  and 
brought  away  captive  four  hundred  maidens,  and  gave 
them  to  the  Benjamites  for  wives.  But  the  number  did 
not  suffice  them.  And  "the  eldei's  of  the  congregation 
said.  How  shall  we  do  for  wives  for  them  that  remain  ? 
There  must  be  an  inheritance  for  them,  that  a  tribe  be  not 
destroyed  out  of  Israel.  ITowbcit,  we  may  not  give  them 
wives  of  our  (laughters;  for  the  children  of  Israel  have 
sworn,  saying,  Cursed  be  he  that  giveth  a  wife  to  Benja- 
min." The  people  of  Shiloh  annually  observed  a  festival, 
and  came  forth  with  songs  aiul  dances  in  honour  of  some 
deity;  and  it  happened  that  the  time  for  this  festival  waa 


JEWS.  421 

near  at  hand.  The  elders  of  Israel  advised  the  Benjamite 
Avidowers  to  wait  for  this  opportunity,  and  hide  themselves 
in  the  vineyards,  in  order  to  catch  the  )'oung  women  as 
they  came  out  to  dance.  "  And  the  children  of  Benjamin 
did  so,  and  took  them  wives  of  them  that  danced,  whom 
they  caught." 

In  such  unsettled  and  marauding  times,  the  priesthood 
could  not  have  been  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  The 
only  mention  made  of  them  is  in  connection  with  Eli ;  and 
his  children  are  described  as  "sons  of  Belial,  who  knew 
not  the  Lord."  "  It  was  the  priests'  custom  with  the  peo- 
ple, that  when  any  man  offered  sacrifice,  the  priest's  servant 
came,  while  the  flesh  was  in  seething,  with  a  flesh-hook  of 
three  teeth  in  his  hand ;  and  he  struck  it  into  the  pan,  or 
kettle,  or  caldron,  and  all  that  the  flesh-hook  brought  up 
the  priest  took  to  himself."  But  when  any  of  the  Israelites 
went  up  to  Shiloh  to  sacrifice,  the  sons  of  Eli,  who  were 
priests  by  hereditary  right,  sent  their  servant  to  say : 
"Give  flesh  to  roast  for  the  priest;  for  he  will  not  have 
sodden  flesh  of  thee,  but  raw."  And  if  the  sacrificer 
asked  him  to. wait  till  the  fat  was  first  burned  on  the  altar, 
a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  he  answered:  "Nay,  thou  shalt 
give  it  to  me  now ;  if  not,  I  will  take  it  by  force."  Such 
conduct  made  the  people  abhor  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the 
Lord;  and  .their  aversion  to  the  young  priests  was  in- 
creased by  the  charge  brought  against  them,  that  "  they 
lay  with  the  women  who  assembled  at  the  door  of  the 
Tabernacle." 

Hebrews,  in  common  with  most  nations  of  antiquity, 
had  the  custom  of  dedicating  their  children  to  the  service 
of  a  Deity,  by  vows  made  in  some  peculiar  emergency. 
Hannah,  the  wife  of  Elkanah,  was  exceedingly  grieved 
because  she  had  no  children.  She  went  up  to  Shiloh  to 
worship,  and  wept  before  the  Lord,  saying:  "If  thou  wilt 
give  unto  thine  handmaid  a  man-child,  then  I  will  give 
him  unto  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  his  life."  She  afterward 
gave  birth  to  Samuel.  As  soon  as  he  was  weaned,  his 
parents  took  him  up  to  the  house  of  the  Lord,  in  Shiloh, 
Vol.  I.— 86 


422  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

and  offered  three  bullocks,  and  an  ephah  of  flour,  and  a 
bottle  of  wine;  and  they  left  the  little  boy  with  Eli  the 
priest,  saying  :  "  As  long  as  he  liveth,  he  shall  be  lent  to 
the  Lord."  "And  the  child  was  girded  with  a  linen 
ephod,  and  ministered  before  the  Lord.  Moreover,  his 
mother  made  him  a  little  coat,  and  brought  it  from  year  to 
year,  when  she  came  up  with  her  husband,  to  offer  the 
yearly  sacrifice."  Hebrew  Sacred  Writings  declare  that 
God  chose  him,  and  appointed  him  to  an  especial  mission, 
even  in  his  childhood.  One  ev^ening,  when  lie  lay  down 
to  sleep,  he  heard  a  voice  calling  him ;  and  he  rose  and 
went  to  Eli,  saying:  "Here  I  am;  for  thou  didst  call  me." 
The  aged  priest  made  answer:  "I  called  thee  not,  my 
son.  Lie  down  again."  And  "  the  Lord  called  yet  again. 
And  Samuel  went  to  Eli  and  said.  Here  am  L  And  he 
answered,  I  called  thee  not,  my  son.  Lie  down  again. 
The  Lord  called  Samuel  the  third  time.  Now  Samuel  did 
not  yet  know  the  Lord,  neither  was  the  word  of  the  Lord 
yet  revealed  to  him.  xind  he  went  to  Eli  and  said.  Here 
am  I ;  for  thou  didst  call  me.  And  Eli  perceived  that  the 
Lord  had  called  the  child."  He  told  him  to  lie  down,  and 
when  he  again  heard  the  voice,  to  answer:  "Speak,  Lord, 
for  th}'-  servant  heareth."  He  did  so;  and  the  Lord  in- 
formed him  that  he  would  visit  the  family  of  Eli  with 
heavy  judgments,  "because  his  sons  made  themselves  vile, 
and  he  restrained  them  not." 

As  Samuel  grew  to  manhood,  he  spoke  boldly  against 
the  evil  practices  he  witnessed,  and  became  famous,  as  "a 
prophet  to  whom  the  Lord  had  revealed  himself."  At  that 
time,  the  Israelites  renewed  their  attacks  on  the  Philistines. 
No  reason  is  assigned  for  it ;  but  it  probably  arose  from 
their  abiding  conviction  that  they  had  a  divine  right  to  take 
possession  of  their  neighbour's  laud,  on  account  of  the 
promise  made  to  Abraham.  According  to  custom,  the 
army  took  with  them  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  that  the 
presence  of  God  might  ensure  to  them  the  victory.  But 
the  event  proved  disastrous.  A  messenger  came  to  Eli 
and  t(>ld  him  that  Israel  fled  before  the  Philistines,  tliat  his 


JEWS.  •  423 

two  sons  were  slaughtered,  and  the  Ark  of  God  was  taken. 
At  these  tidings  the  old  priest  fell  down  and  died ;  and  the 
wife  of  one  of  his  sons  gave  prematnrc  birlh  to  a  boy, 
whom,  with  her  dying  breath,  she  named  Ichabod,  wliich 
signifies  departed  glory.  "The  glory  is  departed  from 
Israel,"  said  she ;   "  for  the  Ark  of  God  is  taken." 

It  was  the  universal  opinion  of  ancient  nations  that 
tempests,  famine,  pestilence,  and  all  other  remarivable  afflic- 
tions, were  owing  to  the  anger  of  some  deity,  on  account 
of  his  neglected  worship.  The  Ark  of  the  Hebrews  re- 
mained seven  months  with  the  Philistines,  and  they  kept 
it  in  a  temple  which  they  had  built  to  a  god  called  Dagon. 
In  the  course  of  these  seven  months,  their  land  was  un- 
usually infested  by  mice,  and  a  troublesome  disease,  called 
the  emerods,  prevailed  extensively.  It  was  suggested 
among  them  that  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  sent  these 
plagues,  because  the  Ark,  in  which  he  dwelt,  had  been 
taken  away  from  the  people  whom  he  protected,  and  he 
was  thus  deprived  of  his  accustomed  worship.  Their 
priests  and  divines,  being  consulted,  advised  them  to  put 
the  Ark  of  the  Hebrews  into  a  new  cart,  drawn  by  two 
3'oung  cows,  which  had  never  worn  a  yoke;  and  to  make 
five  golden  images  of  mice,  and  five  golden  images  of  the 
emerods,  one  for  each  of  their  five  cities,  and  put  them  in 
a  box  beside  the  Ark,  as  a  trespass-offering  to  the  god  of 
the  Hebrews,  whom  the}^  had  probably  offended.  They 
were  further  instructed  to  send  the  cows  away  without  a 
guide  ;  and  if  tliey  of  their  own  accord  took  the  road  to 
Beth-Shemish,  then  they  should  know  for  a  certainty  that 
the  pestilence  had  been  sent  upon  them  b}^  the  Hebrew 
god.  When  the  cows  were  fastened  to  the  cait,  they  went 
straight  to  Beth-Shemish,  whose  name  signified  the  House 
of  the  Sun,  probably  on  account  of  some  temple  to  the  Sun 
erected  there.  It  was  one  of  the  cities  apportioned  to  jiriests 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan.  The 
men  of  Beth-Shemish  were  reaping  wheat  when  the  cart  con- 
taining the  Ark  stopped  in  a  field  near  them,  and  stood  by 
a  great  stone.     They  were  rejoiced  at  the  sight,  and  Levites 


421  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDZAS. 

went  and  took  the  Ark,  and  the  box  cont;iiiiiiig  tlio  golden 
images,  and  laid  them  on  the  great  stone.  And  the  men 
of  Beth-Shemish  cnt  np  the  wood  of  the  eart,  and  with  it 
burnt  the  two  young  eows,  as  an  offering  to  the  Lord. 
Some  of  the  men  of  the  place  had  the  curiosity  to  peep 
into  the  Ark.  It  is  not  stated  whether  they  were  Israelites 
who  did  this ;  but  the  record  declares  that  the  Lord  pun- 
ished their  curiosity  by  the  death  of  more  than  fifty  thou- 
sand men.  When  the  people  saw  that  the  Lord  had 
smitten  them  with  such  great  slaughter,  they  became  afraid 
of  the  Ark,  and  sent  to  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim, 
begging  them  to  come  and  take  it  away.  So  it  was  carried 
thither,  "to  the  house  of  Abinadab  in  the  hill;  and  it  is 
said,  "the  men  of  Kiijath-jearim  sanctified  Eleazar,  son  of 
Abinadab,  to  keep  the  ark."  For  twenty  years  it  remained 
tluis  obscurely  in  the  hands  of  a  private  family. 

The  more  pious  among  the  Israelites  felt  deeply  hu- 
miliated under  the  conviction  that  the  presence  of  Jeho- 
va  was  withdrawn  from  them  on  account  of  their  sins. 
They  sought  counsel  from  Samuel,  in  whom  they  found  a 
second  Moses.  The  office  of  Judge  was  conferred  upon 
him,  and  he  ruled  Israel  for  twelve  years.  He  earnestly 
repeated,  what  had  so  often  been  impressed  upon  the  lie- 
brew  mind,  that  Jehovah  was  a  jealous  God,  and  if  they 
would  propitiate  him,  they  must  put  all  other  gods  entirely 
away.  Under  the  influence  of  Samuel,  the  children  of 
Israel  again  resolved  "to  put  aw\ay  Baal  and  Ashtaroth, 
and  serve  the  Lord  only."  They  gathered  together  unto 
Samuel,  and  poured  out  a  libation  of  water  before  the 
Lord,  and  Samuel  prayed  for  them.  It  is  supposed  that 
he  first  established  seminaries,  called  Schools  of  the  Pro- 
phets, where  young  men  of  all  the  tribes  were  instructed 
in  the  Law  of  Moses,  in  the  history  of  their  own  nation,  in 
medicine,  music,  and  sacred  poetry.  The  course  of  teaching 
did  not  embrace  general  information,  but  was  entirely  con- 
fined to  subjects  connected  with  the  Hebrew  religion. 

In  Samuel's  old  age,  the  peoi)le  became  discontented,  on 
account  of  the  corruption  of  his  sons.     They  demanded  to 


JEWS.  425 

have  a  king,  and  he  anointed  Saul  to  rule  over  them. 
More  than  four  hundred  years  before  that  time,  the  tribe 
of  Amalek  had  laid  wait  for  the  children  of  Israel  as  they 
came  up  out  of  Egypt,  and  fought  with  them.  Samuel 
said  to  Saul :  "The  Lord  sent  me  to  anoint  thee  king  over 
his  people  Israel.  Now,  therefore,  hearken  unto  the 
voice  of  the  Lord.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  I  re- 
member that  which  Amalek  did  to  Israel,  when  he  came 
up  fi-om  Egypt.  Now  go  and  smite  Amalek,  and  utterly 
destroy  all  that  they  have,  and  spare  them  not;  but  slay 
man  and  woman,  infant  and  suckling,  ox  and  sheep,  camel 
and  ass."  Saul  accordingly  went  up  against  the  Arnale- 
kites  and  destroyed  them ;  but  he  was  induced  to  save 
Agag  their  king,  and  the  best  of  the  sheep  and  oxen. 
Samuel  was  exceedingly  offended  that  his  orders  had  not 
been  literally  obeyed.  When  Saul  humbly  acknowledged 
his  error,  and  pleaded  in  excuse  that  the  people  wished  to 
spare  the  fattest  of  the  sheep  and  oxen,  to  sacrifice  to  the 
Lord  their  God,  he  sternly  answered :  "  To  obey  is  better 
than  sacrifice."  Then  he  ordered  Agag  to  be  brought, 
"  and  he  hewed  him  in  pieces  before  the  Lord."  Samuel 
afterward  consented  to  appear  at  a  public  sacrifice  with 
Saul ;  but  thenceforth  there  was  coolness  between  the 
powerful  prophet  and  the  king  whom  he  had  anointed. 
It  is  recorded  that  "the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Samuel, 
saying,  It  repenteth  me  that  I  have  set  up  Saul  to  be 
king."  Soon  after  the  Lord  told  him  to  fill  a  horn  with 
oil,  and  go  to  Bethlehem,  and  secretly  anoint  David  the 
son  of  Jesse  to  be  king.  David  had  his  own  armed  band 
of  followers,  and  became  an  object  of  great  jealousy  to 
Said.  Nob  was  then  tlic  chief  town  of  the  priests,  where 
reli.L:ious  ceremonies  were  daily  performed  by  descendants 
of  Eli,  though  the  Ark  still  remained  at  Kirjath-jearim. 
David  and  some  of  his  followers  came  to  Nob,  and  being 
hungry,  asked  the  priests  for  bread.  They  replied  that  they 
had  none,  except  the  sacred  show-bread,  which  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  Lord.  But  when  David  reprcvsented  that  his 
necessities  were  very  pressing,  they  gave  him  five  loaves 
Vol.  J.— 3G* 


426  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDKAS. 

of  the  lioly  bread,  and  armed  him  with  the  sword  of 
Goliah,  which  had  probably  been  kept  in  some  sacred 
place  as  a  trophy.  When  Saul  heard  of  this,  he  sent 
soldiers  to  Nob,  who  slew  eighty-five  priests,  and  all  the 
men,  women,  children,  oxen,  and  sheep. 

In  the  second  year  after  David  became  king,  he  went 
with  thirty  thousand  chosen  men  to  bring  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  from  Kirjath-jearim,  and  place  it  in  a  new  Tab- 
ernacle on  Mount  Zion.  The  Laws  of  Moses  expressly 
required  that  the  Ark  should  always  be  carried  on  staves, 
slipped  through  rings,  and  borne  on  the  shoulders  of 
Levites.  But  on  this  occasion,  it  was  placed  in  a  new  cart 
drawn  by  oxen,  after  the  fashion  of  surrounding  nations, 
who  were  accustomed  thus  to  carry  images  of  their  gods, 
and  other  sacred  symbols.  David  and  all  the  people  went 
in  procession  before  the  Ark,  dancing  and  playing  on  a 
variety  of  musical  instruments.  When  they  came  near 
Mount  Zion,  the  oxen  jostled  the  Ark,  and  Uzzah,  a 
Levite,  put  forth  his  hand  to  steady  it.  Now,  by  the  Laws 
of  Moses,  a  Levite  was  not  allowed  to  see  the  Ark  un- 
veiled, much  less  to  touch  it.  "  And  the  anger  of  the 
Lord  was  kindled  against  Uzzah,  and  God  smote  him  there 
for  his  error;  and  he  died  there  by  the  Ark  of  God." 
This  sudden  disaster  excited  such  consternation,  that  David 
did  not  dare  to  have  the  Ark  brought  into  Jerusalem.  It 
was  accordingly  "carried  aside  into  the  house  of  Obed- 
Edom  the  Gittite."  When  it  had  remained  there  three 
months,  it  was  told  king  David  that  the  Lord  had  blessed 
the  house  of  Obed-Edom,  because  of  the  Ark.  These 
tidings  removed  his  fears,  and  again  he  went  forth  with  a 
great  multitude,  and  brought  it  to  Mount  Zion  with  songs 
and  dances,  and  the  sound  of  trumpets.  The  king  himself 
danced  before  it,  having  taken  off  his  royal  robes,  and 
girded  himself  with  the  linen  ephod  of  a  ])ricst. 

With  David's  reign  commenced  a  new  and  important 
era  in  tiie  history  of  the  Hebrews.  Li  the  time  of  Abraham, 
there  was  a  city  called  Salem,  said  to  have  been  governed  by 
a  king  named  Melchisedcc.     David  found  it  in  the  posses- 


JEWS.  427 

sion  of  the  Jcjbusitcs.  PcM'ceiving  that  its  situation  was 
well  adapted  lor  a  central  point  of  union  to  all  the  tribes 
of  Israel,  he  conquered  it  and  fortified  it,  and  named  it 
Jeru-Salem,  from  Hebrew  words  signifying  He  shall  sec 
Peace.  When  the  new  city  was  well  established,  lie  opened 
commerce  with  his  neighbours  the  Tyrians,  a  much  more 
wealthy  and  cultivated  people  than  the  Hebrews.  The 
character  of  the  laws  given  by  Moses,  and  the  subsequent 
wandering  and  predatory  habits  of  the  tribes,  had  been  ex- 
tremely unlavourable  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences,  or 
the  arts.  Architecture  was  in  the  rudest  state  among 
Hebrews,  but  the  Tyrians  were  skilful  workmen.  Tliere- 
fore,  when  David  "grew  great,"  and  wished  to  build  him- 
self a  palace,  he  was  obliged  to  send  to  the  king  of  Tyre 
for  cedar-trees,  carpenters,  and  masons. 

While  the  Israelites  themselves  dwelt  in  tents,  they  had 
made  a  tent-temple  for  the  Ark  of  God.  But  now,  when 
the  king  had  built  a  royal  house  for  himself,  it  seemed  to 
him  that  the  Deity  he  worshipped  ought  not  to  dwell  less 
honourably.  He  said  to  Nathan  the  Prophet:  "See  now 
I  dwell  in  an  house  of  cedar,  but  the  Ark  of  God  dwelleth 
within  curtains."  Nathan  at  first  encouraged  his  idea  of 
building  a  temple,  but  in  the  night  the  Lord  revealed  to 
the  prophet  that  it  was  his  will  to  have  the  temple  built 
by  a  son  of  David,  whose  posterity  he  promised  should  be 
forever  established  on  the  throne.  In  one  place,  Hebrew 
records  declare  that  David  could  not  find  time  to  build  a 
temple,  on  account  of  "the  wars  that  beset  him  on  every 
side  ;"  in  another  place,  it  is  said  the  Lord  forbade  him  to 
do  it,  "  because  he  had  shed  so  much  blood  upon  the 
earth."  He  was  successful  above  all  the  leaders  of  his 
nation.  He  took  rich  spoils  in  war,  and  kings  who  sought 
his  alliance  rewarded  his  powerful  assistance  with  treasures 
more  splendid  than  had  ever  been  seen  in  Israel.  He  con- 
secrated a  large  portion  of  these  to  religious  uses,  as  thank- 
offerings  to  Jehovah  for  his  great  prosperity.  So  that  at 
his  death  there  was  a  large  supply  of  gold  and  silver, 
marble  and  cedar,  in  readiness  for  the  temple.     In  the 


428  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

mean  time,  he  introduced  great  improvements  into  the 
public  worship.  Trumpets  were  the  onlj  instruments  pre- 
scribed by  Moses;  but  David,  who  was  himself  a  skilful 
pla3^er  on  the  harp,  introduced  into  the  service  of  the 
Tabernacle  trained  bands  of  singers  and  musicians,  who 
performed  on  harps,  psalteries,  cymbals,  and  an  instrument 
with  small  tinkling  bells.  He  encouraged  the  cultivation 
of  sacred  poetry,  and  himself  composed  religious  songs, 
which  breathed  devout  aspirations  in  some  of  the  sublimest 
language  of  lyric  poetr}'. 

This  illustrious  monarch,  the  object  of  so  much  pride 
and  reverence  to  Hebrews,  is  called  in  their  Sacred  Writ- 
ings, "a  man  after  God's  own  heart."  The  ideas  men 
formed  of  God  at  that  period  are  therefore  indicated  by  the 
prominent  points  of  his  character.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  and  powerful  passions ;  fierce  and  revengeful  to- 
ward his  enemies,  but  endowed  with  susceptibility  of  feeling, 
which  made  it  natural  for  him  to  weep  over  a  fallen  foe. 
He  was  constitutionally  ardent,  with  the  devout  tendency 
which  usually  belongs  to  such  temperaments;  hence  he 
rushed  into  sins,  and  then  "  humbled  himself  before  the 
Lord,"  with  repentance  as  earnest  as  his  crime.  The 
generosity  of  his  character,  and  the  strong  attachment  he 
inspired,  are  implied  by  the  following  anecdote  related  of 
him:  During  one  of  his  severe  campaigns  among  the 
Philistines,  being  sorely  afflicted  with  thirst,  he  expressed 
a  longing  for  some  water  from  the  well  of  Bethlehem,  his 
native  town.  Three  of  his  followers,  who  heard  the  wisli, 
forced  their  way  through  the  enemy's  host,  at  peril  of  their 
lives,  and  brought  the  water  he  so  much  desired.  Touclied 
by  this  proof  of  their  affection,  he  refused  to  drink  it. 
Famishing  as  he  was,  he  poured  it  out  a  libation  before 
Jeliovah,  saying.  Be  it  far  from  me,  O  Lord,  that  I  should 
do  this.  Is  not  this  the  blood  of  the  men  who  went  in 
jeopardy  of  their  lives?"  By  his  wise  policy  he  cemented 
tlie  tribes  together  in  strong  bonds  of  union.  His  success 
flattered  their  pride;  and  his  constant  habit  of  attributing 
all  good  fortune  to  Jehovah,  greatly  strengthened  their  re- 


JEWS.  429 

liance  on  that  powerful  God,  who  had  chosen  them  for  his 
especial  favourites.  The  reverential  tendencies  of  the 
royal  Psalmist  are  abundantly  indicated  by  his  forbearing 
to  kill  Saul  when  he  was  in  his. power,  because  he  was 
"the  Lord's  anointed,"  by  the  tone  of  his  grand  old 
temple-songs,  by  his  careful  observance  of  religious  cere- 
monies, and  by  the  frequency  with  which  he  sought  counsel 
of  God,  through  the  agency  of  oracles  and  prophets.  But 
his  devout  aspirations  and  pious  resolutions  were  far  above 
his  practice.  He  prayed  like  a  saint,  and  j)oured  forth 
sublime  poetry  like  an  inspired  prophet,  and  he  did  so 
sincerely  and  earnestly;  yet  in  many  things  he  acted  like 
an  ambitious  politician,  and  a  ferocious  man  of  blood. 
During  the  conflict  between  his  followers  and  the  ad- 
herents  of  Saul,  Jonathan,  the  beloved  friend  of  David, 
and  son  of  Saul,  had  a  child  of  five  years  old  who  was 
lamed  in  both  his  feet;  for  his  nurse  let  him  fall  when  she 
was  fleeing  from  tlie  horrors  of  civil  war.  It  was  not  till 
the  royal  house  of  Saul  were  entirely  subdued,  and  David 
had  nothing  further  to  fear  from  them,  that  he  inquired 
whether  any  of  the  descendants  were  left,  to  whom  be  could 
"show  kindness  for  Jonathan's  sake."  The  lame,  disin- 
herited boy  had  by  that  time  grown  to  manhood,  and 
become  a  father.  He  was  proffered  a  seat  at  the  royal 
table  all  the  days  of  his  life,  and  received  back  the  estate 
which  belonged  to  his  grandfather.  After  the  war  occa- 
sioned by  Absalom's  rebellion,  there  was  famine  in  the 
land.  This  might  very  naturally  arise  from  neglect  of 
crops  during  civil  .commotions ;  but  David,  according  to 
the  prevailing  ideas  of  his  time,  believed  it  to  be  the  direct 
vengeance  of  God,  in  punishment  for  some  sin.  Accord- 
ingly, he  inquired  of  the  Lord  what  was  the  cause  of  the 
fiimine.  And  the  Lord  answered:  "It  is  for  Saul  and  his 
bloody  house,  because  lie  slew  the  Gibeonites."  It  seems 
the  Israelites  had  sworn  not  to  molest  the  Gibeonites;  but 
Saul,  for  some  unmentioned  reason,  had  slain  a  number 
of  them.  He  had  been  thirty  years  in  his  grave,  wdien 
David  was  informed  that  the  Lord  was  punishing  all  the 


430  PROGRESS   OF    RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

people  for  his  old  transgressions.  He  went  to  the  Gibeonites 
unci  asked  what  atonement  would  satisfy  them.  They  re- 
fused to  take  gold  or  silver  as  a  ransom  for  their  slaughtered 
brethren,  and  demanded  seven  of  Saul's  descendants,  that 
they  might  "  hang  them  up  unto  the  Lord ;"  in  other  words, 
offer  them  as  a  human  sacrifice.  David  spared  the  de- 
scendants of  Jonathan,  on  account  of  an  oath  he  had  sworn 
to  his  early  friend.  But  he  gave  up  two  of  Saul's  sons  by 
a  concubine,  and  five  sons  of  Michal,  Saul's  daughter. 
"  And  the  Gibeonites  hanged  them  on  the  hill,  before  the 
Lord."  Michal  had  loved  David  in  his  days  of  compara- 
tive obscurity,  and  had  been  the  first  wife  of  his  youth. 
Afterward,  when  there  was  civil  war  between  Saul  and 
David,  her  father  gave  her  in  marriage  to  another  man,  by 
whom  she  had  these  five  sons.  When  David  became  king, 
he  demanded  her  again,  though  he  then  had  two  other 
wives.  Perhaps  he  thought  his  regal  power  would  be 
more  securelj^  established,  as  the  acknowledged  son-in-law 
of  Saul.  Michal's  second  husband  seems  to  have  loved 
her  tenderly,  for  when  she  was  carried  away  from  him, 
"  he  followed  her  weeping,"  until  the  king's  messengers 
ordered  him  to  turn  back.  From  what  is  recorded,  she 
and  David  do  not  appear  to  have  lived  on  good  terms 
after  this  forced  reunion.  Still  worse  was  liis  conduct  to 
one  of  his  generals,  named  Uriah.  Having  accidentally 
seen  his  beautiful  wife,  while  she  was  bathing,  he  fell  in 
love  with  her,  and  caused  her  to  be  brought  to  his  palace, 
while  Uriah  was  absent  fighting  his  battles.  When  she 
afterward  inf )rmed  him  that  she  was  likely  to  be  a  mother, 
he  sought  to  shield  himself  from  disgrace,  by  bringing  Uriah 
home.  Failing  in  that  attempt,  he  caused  him  to  be  slain, 
and  afterward  married  the  beautiful  widow.  His  acts  of 
cruelty  were  not  always  of  a  kind  to  be  excused  as  hasty 
impulses  uf  a  zealous  temperament.  A  fierce  spirit  of  re- 
taliation often  marked  his  conduct  and  his  writings,  and  in 
some  cas(!s  it  seems  to  have  been  cherished  by  him  for 
years.  When  he  conquered  the  Moabitcs,  he  caused  the 
inhabitants  of  all  their  cities  to  be  executed  by  various 


JEWS.  431 

modes  of  torture,  described  as  "])uttiug  tliem  under  saws, 
and  under  harrows  of  iron,  and  passing  them  through  the 
briek-kihi."  On  his  deatli-bed,  when  he  was  a  very  old 
man,  he  charged  his  successor  not  to  let  the  hoary  liead  of 
Joab  go  down  to  the  grave  in  }3eace.  Joab  had  brought 
odium  on  David's  administration  by  some  unauthorized 
a(;ts  of  military  zeal  against  the  house  of  Saul;  he  had 
likewise  slain  Absalom,  the  beautiful  son  of  David,  in  the 
days  of  his  rebellion.  At  that  time,  Shiniei,  who  belonged 
to  the  same  tribe  as  Saul,  cursed  David,  and  expressed  his 
gratification  that  one  of  his  own  sons  had  risen  against 
him,  as  he  had  formerly  risen  against  Saul,  his  benefactor. 
Shimei  afterward  humbly  asked  forgiveness,  and  David 
solemnly  promised,  before  all  the  people,  that  he  would  do 
him  no  injury.  But  ten  years  after,  when  he  was  dying, 
he  charged  Solomon  to  "  bring  down  the  hoary  head  of 
Shimei  to  the  grave  with  blood;"  saying  that  he  himself 
could  not  do  it,  because  he  had  sworn  to  him  by  the  Lord 
that  he  would  not  put  hira  to  death.  Yet  Hebrew  Sacred 
Eecords,  after  recounting  all  these  things,  declare  David 
did  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and 
turned  not  aside  from  anything  he  commanded  him  all 
the  days  of  his  life,  save  only  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  the 
Hittite!" 

Solomon  fulfilled  the  sanguinary  injunctions  of  his  dying 
father,  and  likewise  put  to  death  a  brother,  whose  priority 
of  birth  gave  him  a  claim  to  the  throne.  These  transac- 
tions do  not  seem  to  have  made  him  too  much  "a  man  of 
blood"  to  be  a  fitting  instrument  in  building  the  projected 
temple.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  he  began  this 
great  work,  on  which  an  army  of  labourers  are  said  to 
have  been  employed.  lie  numbered  the  foreigners  in 
Israel,  who  were  probably  made  bondmen  by  conquest. 
Hebrew  Sacred  Records  inform  us  that  eighty  thousand  of 
these  were  employed  to  hew  and  work  stone,  and  seventy 
thousand  to  bear  burdens,  under  the  control  of  three 
thousand  six  hundred  overseers.  Thirty  tliousand  Israel- 
ites cut  timber  in  Lebanon,  by  courses;  ten  thousand  in 


432  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

eacli  month,  while  the  others  rested.  The  ornamental 
work  was  done  by  skilful  artificers  from  Tyre,  Notwith- 
standing the  number  of  workmen,  it  was  seven  years  be- 
foi'e  the  temple  was  completed.  The  wrought  stones  were 
so  fitted  to  their  places  before  they  were  brought  to  Jeru- 
salem, that  they  were  put  together  without  noise.  He- 
brews had  a  tradition  that  the}'  were  not  hewn  or  smoothed 
by  any  instrument,  but  a  worm  called  Samir  was  created 
by  God  on  purpose  to  do  that  business;  and  the  stones, 
thus  miraculously  prepared,  moved  to  the  temple  of  their 
own  accord,  where  angels  laid  them  in  their  places, 

A  mass  of  buildings  for  the  priests,  and  various  other 
religious  purposes,  was  enclosed  within  a  wall.  In  the 
centre,  and  overlooking  them  all,  was  the  famous  temple. 
It  had  an  outer  court  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  an  inner 
court  separated  from  the  outer  by  colonnades  with  brazen 
gates.  Sacrifices  and  prayers  were  offered  in  the  inner 
court,  which  contained  a  brazen  altar  for  burnt-offerings, 
and  an  immense  tank,  or  basin  of  brass,  supported  on  the 
backs  of  twelve  brazen  oxen.  This  was  for  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  priests,  who  were  required  to  perform  ablutions 
before  they  entered  the  temple.  A  pipe  supplied  it  with 
water  from  a  well,  and  it  contained  enough  for  two  thou- 
Sixnd  baths.  There  were  likewise  ten  large  lavers  of  brass, 
supported  on  small  pillars,  and  engraved  with  likenesses 
of  bulls,  lions,  and  eagles.  These  were  for  washing  por- 
tions of  the  animals  offered  in  sacrifice. 

The  temple  was  an  oblong  building  of  white  stone. 
According  to  the  dimensions  given,  it  must  have  been 
about  the  size  of  a  small  European  cathcdi'al.  On  three 
sides  were  corridors  rising  above  each  other  to  the  height 
of  three  stories,  supported  by  stately  pillars,  and  containing 
apartments  in  which  sacred  utensils  and  treasures  were 
kept.  The  fourth  and  i'ront  side  was  open,  with  a  portico 
at  the  entrance  supported  by  two  brazen  pillars,  highly 
ornamented  with  representations  of  palm  trees,  lilies,  and 
pomegranates.  The  body  of  the  temple,  separated  and 
veiled  from  the  porch,  was  called  the  sanctuary,  or  holy 


JEWS.  433 

place.  The  doors  were  carved  with  cherubim,  pahu  trees, 
and  flowers,  gilded,  and  covered  with  an  embroideied 
curtain.  The  walls  were  carved  with  the  same  figures, 
laid  in  gold,  and  in  some  places  adorned  with  j)recious 
stones.  Ilere  stood  an  altar  of  gilded  Arabian  wood,  used 
solely  to  sustain  a  golden  dish,  in  which  frankincense 
burned  perpetually.  It  was  a  Hebrew  tradition  that  fra- 
grance diffused  from  this  table  might  be  smelled  from 
Jerusalem  to  Jericho.  The  great  number  of  animals 
slaughtered,  and  the  blood  poured  out  and  sprinkled  in 
multifarious  religious  ceremonies,  would  probably  have 
been  disagreeable  without  this  precaution.  On  a  golden 
table  was  laid  an  offering  to  the  Lord  of  twelve  loaves  of 
bread,  one  from  each  tribe.  These  were  renewed  every 
Sabbath,  and  the  old  loaves  divided  among  the  priests. 
Ten  branching  candlesticks  of  gold  sustained  golden  lamps, 
filled  with  pure  olive  oil,  not  pressed  out  in  a  mill,  but 
such  as  exuded,  drop  by  drop,  from  bruised  olives,  and 
was  thus  perfectly  free  from  sediment.  They  were  kept 
burning  day  and  night,  the  sanctuary  not  being  lighted  by 
any  other  means. 

Within  the  sanctuary  was  a  secret  apartment,  called  the 
sanctum  sanctorum,  or  holy  of  holies.  The  floor  was  of 
cedar  overlaid  with  gold.  The  ceiling  was  covered  with 
plates  of  gold  fastened  with  golden  nails.  The  walls  were 
of  polished  marble  lined  with  cedar,  carved  with  cherubim, 
palm  trees,  and  flowers,  richly  gilded.  The  door,  carved 
and  gilded  after  the  same  patterns,  was  separated  from 
the  sanctuary  by  chains  of  gold,  and  an  embroidered  curtain 
of  blue,  purple,  and  crimson.  In  the  inmost  recesses  of 
this  holy  place,  Solomon  put  two  gigantic  images  of  cheru- 
bim, fifteen  feet  high,  of  gilded  olive  wood.  Their  outer 
wings  touched  the  wall  on  either  side,  and  the  inner  wings 
met  together.  Immediately  under  their  wings  was  placed 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  whose  golden  cover  was  called 
the  Alercy  Seat,  because  God  there  showed  himself  propi- 
tious, after  being  appeased  by  the  blood  of  sacrifices. 
Golden  images  of  cherubim  were  on  the  Mercy  Seat,  ore 
Vol.  I.— 37  t 


434  PKOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

on  either  end,  bending  toward  eacli  other,  and  forming 
with  their  outstretched  wings  a  kind  of  seat,  called  the 
Throne  of  God.  Over  it  was  a  visible  cloud,  called  the 
Shechinah,  or  Divine  Presence,  in  which  Jehovah  was  sup- 
posed to  be  actually  present.  Hence  he  is  often  spoken  of, 
in  the  Hebrew  Sacred  Books,  as  "  dwelling  between  the 
cherubim."  The  Ark  was  the  same  one  constructed  by 
Moses,  from  money,  ear-rings,  and  other  jewels,  which  the 
people  dedicated  for  that  purpose.  All  other  things  con- 
nected with  the  temple  were  made  anew  by  Solomon,  ac- 
cording to  patterns  prescribed  by  Aloses,  though  greatly 
exceeding  them  in  splendour.  The  colossal  cherubim  placed 
on  each  side  of  the  Ark,  and  the  representations  of  bulls, 
lions,  and  eagles,  seem  like  an  infringement  of  the  com- 
mand that  no  graven  images  should  be  made.  They  were 
probably  additions  suggested  to  Solomon  by  his  intercourse 
with  Tyrians  and  Egyptians. 

A  great  number  of  gold  and  silver  utensils  were  made 
for  the  use  of  the  temple,  and  these  were  continually  in- 
creased by  gifts  from  devotees,  who  expected  thereby  to 
gain  favours  from  their  God. 

Before  the  building  could  be  fit  for  worship,  the  altar 
for  burnt-offerings  must  first  be  purified  from  pollutions  it 
had  acquired  by  the  hands  of  workmen  and  the  touch  of 
tools.  For  this  purpose,  a  bullock  was  sacrificed,  and  the 
priest  put  some  of  the  blood  on  the  horns  of  the  altar  with 
his  finger.  When  this  had  been  repeated  seven  days,  the 
altar  was  ready  for  sacrifice,  and  thenceforth  sanctified 
everything  that  touched  it.  The  altars,  and  all  the  utensils, 
were  anointed  with  oil  made  fragrant  by  spices;  a  quantity 
of  which  had  always  been  kept  in  the  holiest  place,  by  com- 
mand of  Moses,  to  be  used  only  for  consecrating  kings, 
high  priests,  and  vessels  belonging  to  the  House  of  God. 

When  everything  was  duly  prepared,  all  the  tribes  of 
Israel  assembled  with  their  elders,  and,  with  the  king  at 
their  head,  went  in  procession  to  Mount  Zion  to  bring 
thence  the  old  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  When  it  was 
opened,  it  was  found  to  contain  only  the  two  tables  of 


JEWS.  435 

Btoue,  with  graven  commandments,  wliicli  Moses  had 
placed  therein  at  Horeb.  Priests,  sanctified  for  the  pur- 
pose, tooli  up  tlie  Arlc,  carried  it  to  the  new  temple,  and 
})laced  it  in  the  holy  of  holies.  At  that  moment,  a  hundred 
and  twenty  priests  in  the  sanctuary  sounded  their  silver 
trumpets ;  bands  of  musicians  began  to  play,  and  Levites, 
clad  in  white  linen,  sang,  "  Praised  be  the  Lord  !  for  he  is 
good ;  for  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever."  "  The  trumpeters 
and  singers  were  as  one,  to  make  one  sound  to  be  heard  in 
praising  the  Lord."  While  this  great  chorus  was  resound- 
ing through  the  temple,  the  Shechinah,  or  Divine  Presence, 
which  five  hundred  years  before  had  descended  over  the 
Mercy  Seat  in  the  Tabernacle,  descended  in  the  same  visible 
form  of  a  cloud,  and  rested  over  the  Mercy  Seat  in  the 
Temple.  It  was  probably  accompanied  by  sudden  light ; 
for  it  is  stated  that  "  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled  the  house ; 
so  that  the  priests  could  not  stand  to  minister  by  reason  of 
the  cloud." 

When  Moses  offered  a  burnt-offering  to  the  Lord,  "  fire 
came  out  from  before  the  Lord,  and  consumed  upon  the 
altar  the  burnt-offering  and  the  fat."  The  flame  thus 
kindled  was  not  allowed  to  go  out,  and  no  other  was  used 
for  religious  purposes.  When  two  sons  of  Aaron  burned 
incense  before  the  Lord,  kindled  with  common  fire,  Hebrew 
Sacred  Writings  declare  that  "  fire  came  from  the  Lord  and 
devoured  them,  and  they  died."  Whether  the  sacred  fire 
was  afterward  lost,  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings  and 
their  wars,  is  not  stated.  But  when  Solomon  offered  his 
first  burnt  offering  on  the  new  altar  of  the  temple,  we  are 
told  that  fire  came  running  out  of  the  air,  and  consumed 
the  sacrifice.  And  when  all  the  children  of  Israel  saw  it, 
"  they  bowed  themselves  with  their  faces  to  the  ground." 
This  heavenly  fire  was  tended  night  and  day  by  priests, 
who  fed  it  with  perfectly  clean  wood,  stripped  of  its  bark, 
and  free  from  all  imperfections.  It  was  deemed  sacrilege 
to  resuscitate  this  holy  flame  by  blowing  upon  it  with  the 
breath. 

"  The  king  and  all  the  people  offered  sacrifices  to  the  Lord, 


436  PROGRESS   OF  RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

twenty-two  thousand  oxen,  and  a  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  sheep ;  so  the  king  and  all  the  jjeople  dedicated 
the  House  of  God.  And  Solomon  kept  the  feast  fourteen 
days,  and  all  Israel  with  him."  Kneeling  on  a  high  plat- 
form above  the  crowd,  he  spread  out  his  hands  and  prayed: 
"  O  Lord  God  of  Israel,  there  is  no  God  like  unto  thee,  in 
the  heaven,  nor  on  the  earth.  But  will  God  in  very  deed 
dwell  with  men  upon  the  earth?  Behold  heaven  and  the 
heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain  thee ;  how  mucli  less 
this  house  which  I  have  built!  But  hearken  unto  the  sup- 
plications of  thy  servant,  and  of  thy  people  Israel,  which 
they  shall  make  toward  this  place.  Hear  thou  from  thy 
dwelling  place,  even  from  Heaven,  and  when  thou  hearest 
forgive." 

It  was  an  universal  custom  to  choose  the  highest  site 
within  a  city  for  the  temple  of  its  presiding  deity.  Solo- 
mon's temple  stood  on  Mount  Moriah,  in  the  centre  of 
Jerusalem,  which  was  thenceforth  called  the  Mountain  of 
the  Lord's  House.  According  to  Hebrew  traditions,  it  was 
the  place  where  Cain  and  Abel  offered  oblations,  and  where 
Abraham  made  ready  to  sacrifice  Isaac.  People  believed 
the  temple  was  actually  God's  house ;  that  he  had  a  local 
and  personal  residence  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  mani- 
fested himself  in  the  form  of  a  shining  light.  Tlie  High 
Priest  went  there  to  ask  questions  of  him,  and  received 
answers,  which  were  considered  oracles.  They  spread  a 
golden  table  with  bread  for  Jehovah,  as  they  would  have 
done  for  a  temporal  king  in  his  own  palace.  They  sup- 
posed he  enjoyed  the  fragrance  of  incense  and  the  savour 
of  burning  sacrifices ;  and  Jerusalem  was  considered  pre- 
eminently safe,  happy,  and  glorious,  because  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  more  peculiarly  and  permanently  present  there 
than  elsewhere. 

Before  the  temple  was  built,  the  people  had  always  been 
accustomed  to  sacrifice  in  "liigh  ])laces."  Hills  that  sup- 
plied the  shade  and  solemnity  of  groves  were  preferred  by 
the  devout  of  all  nations;  and  in  such  places  altars  and 
images  were  sure  to  abound.     The  extreme  proncncss  of 


JEWS.  437 

the  Israelites  to  pay  homage  to  these  foreiirn  gods,  ami  to 
consider  the  2;roves  themselves  holv,  induced  ]\[oses  to 
command  them  not  to  pLant  any  trees  near  an  altar  of  the 
Lord  their  God.  Afterward,  such  localities  seem  to  have 
been  deemed  allowable,  amid  the  inconveniences  of  their 
unsettled  condition,  provided  they  were  careful  not  to 
direct  their  worship  toward  any  other  object  than  the  God 
of  the  Hebrews.  But  when  the  temple  was  built,  the  old 
caution  against  groves  was  renewed,  and  it  was  expressly 
forbidden  to  plant  a  sir  gle  tree  on  the  mountain  where  it 
stood.  The  entire  hill  was  considered  holy  ground.  Any 
unclean  action,  immodest  gesture,  idle  talking,  or  laughing, 
was  deemed  sacrilegious  there.  If  a  leper,  or  a  person  who 
had  eaten  unclean  food,  or  touched  the  dead,  or  stepped  on 
a  grave,  entered  the  court  of  the  temple  without  purifica- 
tion, he  was  driven  out  and  severely  scourged.  None  of 
the  Gentile  nations  were  allowed  to  pass  in  farther  than 
the  outer  court.  All  who  came  from  a  foreign  land,  even 
if  they  were  Hebrews,  were  obliged  to  go  through  a  process 
of  cleansing  before  they  were  allowed  to  enter  the  sacred 
enclosure ;  amono-  these  ceremonies  were  ablutions  and  cut- 
ting  off  the  hair.  Neither  priests  nor  people  were  allowed 
to  sit  or  lean  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple,  however 
weary  they  might  be.  Only  kings  of  the  house  of  David 
were  allowed  to  sit  there. 

It  was  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  Hebrew  government 
to  multiply  temples,  because  the  constant  object  was  to 
consolidate  the  tribes  into  a  nation,  and  there  was  no  bond 
of  union  so  strong  as  one  central  place  of  worship,  and  the 
habit  of  consulting  the  same  oracle  in  all  cases  of  emer- 
gency. Those  at  a  distance  from  Jerusalem  built  courts 
f)r  prayer,  generally  in  high  solitary  places,  but  they 
always  prayed  with  faces  turned  toward  their  Holy  City. 
If  they  prayed  within  the  cii'cuit  of  Jerusalem,  they  always 
turned  toward  the  temple;  if  within  the  precincts  of  the 
temple,  they  always  turned  toward  where  the  Ark  stood. 
Three  times  a  year,  on  the  recurrence  of  great  annual 
festivals,  every  man  was  required  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to 
Vol.  I.— 37* 


i38  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

present  offerings  to  the  Lord,  and  tithes  to  tlie  priesthood. 
Both  piety  and  pride  bound  the  Israelites  strongly  to  this 
centre  of  national  worship. 

Moreover,  the  public  services  of  religion  were  more  in- 
teresting than  they  had  been  in  the  olden  time.  In  schools 
of  the  prophets,  poets  composed  songs  for  the  temple,  and 
music  repeated  them  with  its  inspiring  voice,  on  which  the 
souls  of  devout  listeners  rose  into  high  calm  regions,  far 
above  the  prosaic  routine  of  extern? '.  ceremonies.  Solomon 
perfected  the  work  his  father  had  begun.  Four  thousand 
singers  were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  temple,  to  sing 
in  courses,  by  turns;  and  twenty-four  bands  of  musical  in- 
struments, each  under  the  care  of  a  presiding  officer.  Both 
men  and  women  were  employed  in  this  service,  for  we  are 
told  of  "damsels  playing  with  timbrels"  in  religious  pro- 
cessions, and  it  is  recorded  that  Heman,  a  musician  of  the 
temple,  had  fourteen  sons  and  three  daughters,  "  all  under 
the  hands  of  their  father  for  song  in  the  House  of  the 
Lord."  The  service  was  hereditary,  the  duties  and  emolu- 
ments descending  from  father  to  son. 

When  Nathan  the  prophet  announced  to  David  that  the 
Lord  had  appointed  his  son  to  build  a  temple,  he  likewise 
told  him  that  God  had  sworn  to  establish  his  family  on  the 
throne  forever.  This  promise,  so  flattering  to  the  king, 
and  to  the  hopes  of  the  people,  was  often  repeated  in  songs 
for  worshij),  composed  by  the  royal  troop  of  poets  and 
musicians.  David  himself  alluded  to  it  in  one  of  his  latest 
compositions.  When  the  temple  was  completed,  and 
Solomon  dedicated  it  with  prayer  in  the  presence  of  all 
Israel,  he  publicly  reminded  Jeliovah  of  the  covenant  he 
ha<l  made  with  his  father's  house.  The  {iromise,  thus 
strongly  im])rcssod  on  the  popular  mind,  had  a  i)owerful 
and  abiding  influence.  Their  national  greatness  began  with 
David,  and  all  their  future  hopes  were  intertwined  with  his 
family  and  tribe.  In  seasons  of  darkest  discouragement, 
there  always  loomed  above  the  gathering  clouds  bright 
visions  of  a  "lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judali,"  destined  to  come 
to  their  rescue.     No  pro})hccy  ever  had  such  permanent 


JEWS.  439 

and  extensive  influence  on  human  affairs,  as  that  promise 
made  b}^  Nathan  to  the  most  popular  king  of  the  Hebrews. 

Yet  Solomon  seems  to  have  soon  forgotten  the  conditions 
on  which  that  promise  was  given,  viz. :  that  "the  sons  of 
David  should  take  heed  to  their  way,  and  walk  before  God 
as  their  flitlier  had  done."  Contrary  to  the  Law  of  Moses, 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
took  numerous  wives  from  other  foreign  nations.  They 
"  turned  away  his  heart  after  other  gods."  "  He  went  after 
Ashtoreth,  goddess  of  the  Sidonians;"  and  on  a  hill  before 
Jerusalem,  he  built  places  of  worship  for  the  god  of  the 
Moabites,  and  the  god  of  the  Ammonites.  "  Thus  did  he 
for  all  his  strange  wives,  who  burned  incense,  and  sacri- 
ficed unto  their  gods;"  and  he  did  this,  it  is  said,  notwith- 
standing the  Lord  God  of  Israel  appeared  to  him  twice, 
and  told  him  that  he  should  not  go  after  other  gods. 

A  few  fragments  preserved  in  Sacred  Books  of  the 
Hebrews  are  all  that  remain  of  the  much-praised  wisdom 
of  Solomon.  There  is  no  contemporary  history,  by  wliich 
we  can  judge  how  other  nations  regarded  him.  The  na- 
tional mind,  hitherto  fettered  by  the  limitations  of  pastoral 
life,  doubtless  began  to  expand  somewhat  under  the  pros- 
perous reigns  of  David  and  his  enterprising  son.  The 
learned  commentator,  De  Wette,  says:  "  It  may  be  main- 
tained with  highest  probabiUty  that  literary  productions  in 
Hebrew  scarcely  extend  beyond  the  period  of  David  and 
Solomon.  Here  is  the  first  sure  ground  in  the  history  of 
the  language." 

Solomon's  reputation  for  wisdom  did  not  shield  him  from 
popular  dissatisfaction,  which,  according  to  the  usages  of 
those  times,  soon  expressed  itself  in  a  prophetic  form.  Au. 
energetic  man,  named  Jeroboam,  had  been  appointed  by 
the  king  to  superintend  certain  pubHc  works.  There  was 
at  that  time  a  prophet  named  Ahijah,  for  whom  the  people 
entertained  great  reverence.  One  day,  when  he  and  Jero- 
boam met  alone  in  the  fields,  the  prophet  seized  hold  of 
his  garment  and  tore  it  in  twelve  pieces,  saying :  "  Thus 
^aith  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  I  will  rend  the  kingdom  out 


440  rilOGKESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

of  the  hand  of  Solomon,  and  give  ten  tribes  unto  thee. 
Because  he  has  forsaken  me,  and  worshipped  Ashtoretli, 
goddess  of  the  Sidonians."  Solomon  was  well  aware  what 
a  powerful  influence  prophecy  had  on  the  minds  of  the 
people,  and  how  naturally  it  tended  to  produce  its  own 
fulfilment.  Therefore,  as  soon  as  this  proceeding  was 
noised  abroad,  he  became  suspicious  of  Jeroboam,  and 
sought  to  slay  him.  He  saved  himself  by  escaping  to 
Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  under  whose  protection  he  re- 
mained till  the  death  of  Solomon, 

Rehoboam,  the  only  son  of  Solomon,  succeeded  to  his 
throne.  His  mother  was  of  the  Ammonites,  and  had 
always  continued  to  worship  the  gods  of  her  childhood. 
Therefore,  it  is  not  surprising  that  during  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam  "there  were  groves  on  every  high  hill,  and 
images  under  every  green  tree."  The  people  "  provoked 
the  Lord  to  jealousy  with  their  sins ;  and  Shishak,  king 
of  Egypt,  came  up  against  Jerusalem,  and  took  away  the 
treasures  of  the  House  of  the  Lord,  and  the  treasures  of 
the  king's  house.  He  even  took  away  all."  But  before 
that  happened,  the  exiled  Jeroboam  had  returned,  and  ex- 
cited ten  of  the  tribes  to  rebel  against  their  king.  Hence- 
forth there  were  two  kingdoms ;  one  called  Judah,  whose 
capital  was  Jerusalem  ;  the  other  called  Israel,  whose  capi- 
tal was  Samaria.  Ahijah,  whose  prophecy  excited  this 
revolt  from  the  idolatrous  descendants  of  David,  did  not 
have  his  hopes  fulfilled  by  the  conduct  of  Jeroboam.  For 
he  also  "  made  a  house  of  high  places,"  and  set  uj)  two 
golden  calves  for  the  people  to  worship,  sajnng  :  "  Behold, 
O  Israel,  thy  gods,  which  brought  thee  up  out  of  Egypt." 
It  is  mentioned  as  one  of  his  great  ofiences,  that  "  he  made 
priests  of  the  lowest  of  the  people,  who  were  not  of  the 
sons  of  Levi."  He  likewise  neglected  some  of  the  sacred 
days  of  the  Hebrews,  and  kept  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  a 
month  later  than  they  did  at  Jerusalem.  Writers  belong- 
ing to  the  kingdom  of  eludah  continually  speak  of  him  with 
great  severity,  as  "Jeroboam,  son  of  Ncbat,  who  made 
Israel  to  sin."     Yet,  from  what  is  recorded,  it  seems  difii- 


JEWS.  441 

cult  to  determine  wliicli  was  the  greatest  patron  of  image' 
worship,  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  or  Rehoboam,  king  of 
Judah. 

Of  Abijam,  son  and  successor  of  Rehoboam,  it  is  briefly 
related  that  "  he  walked  in  all  the  sins  of  his  father."  But 
when  his  son  Asa  became  king,  a  different  course  was  pur- 
sued. He  demolished  all  the  images  his  fathers  had  made, 
and  removed  his  mother  from  being  queen,  because  "  she 
had  made  an  idol  in  a  grove."  "  Asa's  heart  was  perfect 
with  the  Lord  all  his  days.  And  the  silver,  and  gold,  and 
vessels,  which  his  father  had  dedicated,  and  which  himself 
had  dedicated,  he  brought  into  the  House  of  the  Lord." 
Yet  it  is  said  he  imprisoned  a  prophet,  "  and  was  in  a  rage 
with  him,"  because  he  reproved  him  for  using  gold  and 
silver  belonging  to  the  temple,  to  sustain  himself  in  time 
of  war. 

From  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  there  was  continual  war- 
fare between  Judah  and  the  revolted  kingdom  of  Lsrael. 
The  successors  of  Jeroboam  did  as  he  had  done.  They 
woi'shipped  Baal  and  golden  calves,  and  set  up  altars  in 
groves.  One  of  them,  named  Ahab,  married  Jezebel,  a 
Sidonian,  and  built  a  temple  for  her  god  Baal,  and  sur- 
rounded it  with  a  grove,  and  himself  worshipped  there. 
She  persecuted  the  prophets  of  the  God  of  Israel,  so  that 
they  were  obliged  to  hide  in  caves,  sustained  by  bread  and 
water,  while  four  hundi'ed  and  fifty  prophets  of  Baal  fed 
at  the  royal  table.  Among  all  the  people,  there  were 
"  only  seven  thousand  who  had  not  bowed  the  knee  to 
Baal,  or  kissed  his  image."  In  time  of  severe  famine, 
Elijah  the  prophet  went  boldly  to  king  Ahab,  and  de- 
manded that  the  people  should  be  gathered  together  at 
Mount  Carmel,  and  that  the  prophets  of  Jehovah  and  the 
prophets  of  Baal  should  both  be  summoned,  that  the  peo- 
ple might  see  which  were  true  prophets.  The  prophet? 
of  each  deity  agreed  to  sacrifice  a  bullock,  and  he  on 
whose  altar  fire  came  down  from  heaven  and  consumed 
the  sacrifice,  was  to  be  considered  the  true  god.  It  is  said 
the  prophets  of  Baal   prayed   to   him   from   morning  til] 


442  •    PllOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS    IDEAS. 

evening;  but  no  fire  descended  on  their  altar.  Bat  when 
EHjah  called  on  the  God  of  Israel,  fire  immediately  came 
down  from  heaven,  and  consumed  the  bullock,  "and  the 
wood,  and  the  stones,  and  the  dust,  and  licked  up  the 
water  that  was  in  the  trench.  And  when  the  people  saw- 
it,  they  fell  on  their  faces,  and  said.  The  Lord  he  is  God." 
Then  Ehjah  commanded  them  to  slaughter  all  the  priests 
of  Baal,  and  let  none  escape;  and  they  did  so.  When 
queen  Jezebel  heard  wliat  had  happened  to  her  prophets, 
she  swore  by  her  gods  that  Elijah  should  share  their  fate; 
and  he  deemed  it  prudent  to  escape  and  hide  himself 

Jehoshaphat,  son  of  Asa,  is  described  as  the  most  pious 
and  prosperous  king  of  Judah,  after  the  time  of  David. 
"His  heart  was  lifted  up  in  the  ways  of  the  Lord,  and  he 
took  away  the  high  places  and  groves  out  of  Judah.  And 
the  priests  had  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  with 
them,  and  went  about  throughout  all  the  cities  of  Judah, 
and  taught  the  people."  However,  when  the  power  of 
Syria  was  growing  dangerously  strong,  he  combined  with 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  to  attack  their  common  enemy ;  and 
afterward  he  married  his  son  Jehoram  to  Athaliah,  the 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  The  prophets  did  not  fail 
to  rebuke  Jehoshaphat.  On  his  way  home  from  the  wars, 
"a  seer  went  out  to  meet  him,  and  said,  Shouldest  thou 
help  the  ungodly,  and  love  them  that  hate  the  Lord? 
Nevertheless,  there  are  good  things  found  in  thee,  in  that 
thou  hast  taken  away  the  groves  out  of  tlie  land,  and  hast 
prepared  thine  heart  to  seek  God."  "  And  Jehoshaphat 
went  out  again  through  the  people,  and  brought  them  back 
to  the  Lord  God  of  their  fathers." 

His  son  Jehoram,  and  his  grandson  Ahaziah,  when  they 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  worshipped  the  same  gods  as 
Ahab  king  of  Israel,  with  whom  they  were  allied  by  mar- 
riage. They  "made  high  places  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,"  and  commanded  the  people  to  worship  there. 

Meanwhile  political  changes  were  fermenting  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Elijah  received  a  command  from  the 
Lord  to  anoint  Jehu  king  of  Israel,  and  instruct  him  to 


JEWS.  443 

slay  tlie  reigning  nionarcli  witli  all  iiis  familv.  So  Jehu 
headed  a  rebellion,  "and  slew  Ahab,  and  all  his  grrat 
men,  and  his  kinsfolk,  and  his  priests,  until  he  left  none 
remaining;  aecording  to  the  saying  of  the  Lord,  whieh  he 
spake  unto  Elijah."  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  who  was 
visiting  his  kinsman,  the  king  of  Israel,  was  slain  also. 
Jehu  at  first  professed  to  be  a  worshipper  of  Baal,  and 
ordered  a  great  sacrifice  in  his  honour,  to  which  his  priests 
throughout  the-  kingdom  were  summoned.  But  as  soon  as 
they  were  assembled,  he  ordered  every  one  to  be  slain,  and 
tore  down  the  temple  of  Baal,  and  burnt  his  image.  Yet 
he  by  no  means  fulfilled  the  hopes  of  Elijah ;  for  he  mani- 
fested no  faith  in  Jehovah,  and  publicly  worshipped  the 
golden  calves  of  Egypt,  which  Jeroboam  had  set  up. 

The  kingdom  of  the  revolted  ten  tribes  had  a  struggling 
and  troubled  existence.  They  were  enfeebled  by  civil 
commotions,  and  by  frequent  wars  with  Syria  and  Judah. 
When  the  powerful  Assyrians  attacked  them  little  more 
than  three  centuries  after  David,  they  found  Israel  an  easy 
prey,  and  tliey  carried  off  the  inhabitants  into  a  captivity 
from  which  tliey  never  returned. 

The  smaller  kingdom  of  Judah,  though  they  had  Solo- 
mon's temple,  and  an  established  priesthood,  were  very 
unsteady  in  their  reliance  on  Jehovah.  Scarcely  two  kings 
in  succession  sustained  his  worship,  and  it  was  very  evi- 
dent that  the  popular  mind  Avas  never  really  elevated  to  a 
genuine  and  strong  belief  in  one  invisible  Deity.  Pro- 
phets constantly  taught  that  it  was  impossible  for  God's 
chosen  people  to  meet  with  any  disasters,  unless  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  some  sin  they  had  committed ;  and  that  the 
worship  of  foreign  gods  was  great  above  all  other  sins. 
In  times  of  prosperity,  the  people  adored  Baal  and  Ash- 
toreth,  and  kissed  their  hands  to  the  stars.  If  famine  or 
pestilence  came,  they  ran  back  to  the  God  of  their  fathers, 
and  like  terrified  children  inquired  what  they  should  do  to 
abate  their  punishment.  But  as  soon  as  the  panic  sub- 
sided, they  resorted  to  the  groves  again,  and  the  prescribed 
festivals  in  honour  of  Jehovah  were  nedccted. 


444  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

Joash,  tlie  son  and  grandson  of  two  idolatrous  kings, 
began  his  reign  at  seven  years  old,  an  orphan,  under  the 
tutelage  of  the  High  Priest.  lie  manifested  his  zeal  for 
Jehovah's  worship,  by  ordering  funds  to  be  collected  to 
repair  the  temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  which  had  then  stood 
about  one  hundred  and  thirty  years.  All  the  dedicated 
gold  was  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  a  tax  was  likewise 
levied  on  the  people,  and  the  priests  were  instructed  to 
obtain  voluntary  donations.  Seven  years  passed  on;  the 
jDriests  continually  received  contributions  from  the  people, 
but  the  temple  was  not  repaired.  That  the  king  distrusted 
the  integrity  of  the  priests,  is  implied  by  the  fact  that  he 
forbade  them  to  receive  any  more  money.  He  ordered  a 
box,  with  a  hole  in  its  lid,  to  be  made  and  placed  near  the 
altar ;  and  whatever  the  people  chose  to  give,  they  dropped 
into  the  orifice.  At  stated  times  the  royal  secretary,  in 
conjunction  with  the  High  Priest,  took  out  the  money, 
counted  it,  and  hired  masons  and  carpenters  to  execute 
necessary  repairs.  After  the  death  of  the  Pontiff,  there 
was  a  feud  between  the  king  and  the  priests.  It  is  not 
stated  whether  it  was  because  he  had  doubted  their 
honesty,  or  because  they  were  offended  with  him  for 
taking  golden  vessels  out  of  the  temple,  to  bribe  the  king 
of  Syria,  when  he  threatened  to  attack  Jerusalem.  It  is 
recorded  that  he  and  his  companions  "  left  the  House  of 
the  Lord,  and  served  groves  and  idols."  The  Lord  sent 
prophets  to  remonstrate  with  them,  but  they  would  not 
listen.  One  of  these  messengers  was  stoned  to  death,  by 
order  of  the  king,  who  was  soon  after  assassinated  in  his 
bed. 

Amaziah,  his  son,  "did  what  was  right  in  the  sight  of 
the  Lord"  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign ;  but  when  he 
returned  from  a  victory  over  the  Edomites,  he  brought 
with  him  some  of  their  images,  and  "set  them  up  to  be 
his  gods,  and  bowed  down  himself  before  them,  and  burned 
incense  unto  them." 

Uzziah,  his  successor,  "did  that  which  was  right  in  the 
sight  of  tlie  Lord ;"  and  his  son  Jotham  was  also  a  pious 


JEWS.  445 

prince,  who  built  a  gate  to  the  temple.  But  Ahaz,  the 
grandson  of  Uzziah,  "  sacrificed  and  burnt  incense  in  the 
high  places,  and  on  the  hills,  and  under  every  green  tree." 
When  the  Syrians  defeated  him  in  battle,  he  worshipped 
the  Syrian  gods,  and  raised  altars  to  them  in  every  city  of 
Judah,  and  every  corner  of  Jerus.ilem ;  giving  as  a  reason 
that  deities  must  be  powerful  who  thus  protected  the 
people  that  trusted  in  them.  Having  been  pleased  with  an 
altar  he  saw  in  Damascus,  he  caused  one  to  be  made  after 
the  same  pattern,  and  placed  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
He  removed  the  twelve  brazen  oxen  from  under  the  great 
brazen  tank ;  probably  because  he  needed  the  brass  to  pay 
the  king  of  Assyria  for  helping  him  in  the  wars.  Finally 
he  shut  up  Solomon's  temple,  and  made  images  of  Baal, 
which  he  caused  to  be  worshipped.  The  ceremony  of 
passing  through  fire,  as  an  emblem  of  higher  purification 
than  water,  formed  a  part  of  the  worship  of  Baal,  who  is 
sometimes  called  Moloch.  Some  suppose  that  parents 
carried  children  on  their  shoulders  through  the  fire;  others 
think  the  priests  led  them  through,  or  simply  waved  a 
child  over  the  flame,  to  signify  that  he  was  consecrated  to 
the  God  of  the  Sun.  To  avert  some  great  calamity,  child- 
ren were  sometimes  consumed  as  burnt-offerings  to  Moloch. 
King  Ahaz  caused  his  own  son  to  pass  through  the  fire; 
but  he  could  not  have  been  materially  harmed  by  the  pro- 
cess, for  he  afterward  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne. 
How  completely  the  worship  of  images  was  mixed  up  with 
faith  in  Jehovah,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  prophet 
Hosea,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  enumerates  images 
and  teraphim  [household  gods]  among  the  desirable  appa- 
ratus of  a  religious  state.  He  prophesies  sorrowful  times, 
when  "the  children  of  Israel  shall  abide  many  days, 
without  a  king,  without  a  prince,  and  without  a  sacrifice, 
and  without  an  image,  and  without  an  ephod,  and  without 
a  teraphim.  Afterward  they  shall  return  and  seek  the 
Lord  their  God." 

Hezekiah,  son  of  Ahaz,  endeavoured  to  lead  the  people 
back  to  Jehovah,  giving  as  a  reason  that  while  the  temple 
Vol.  I.— 38 


446  PEOGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

on  Mount  Moriali  had  been  shut  up,  their  sons  had  fallen 
by  the  sword,  and  their  wives  and  cliildren  had  been  taken 
captive.  "  He  removed  the  high  places,  and  brake  the 
images,  and  cut  down  the  groves."  When  he  found  the 
children  of  Israel  burning  incense  to  the  brazen  serpent 
Moses  had  made,  he  brake  the  image  in  pieces,  calling  it 
Nehushtan,  which  means  a  brass  bauble.  lie  opened 
Solomon's  temple,  and  summoned  the  priests  and  Levites 
to  sanctify  themselves  and  the  house,  and  make  prepara- 
tions for  a  great  public  sacrifice.  The  people,  in  obedience 
to  royal  command,  brought  up  to  the  temple  seventy  bul- 
locks, a  hundred  rams,  and  two  hundred  lambs,  for  a  burnt- 
offerinof  to  the  Lord.  "And  when  the  burnt-offering 
began,  the  song  of  the  Lord  began  also,  with  the  trumpets, 
and  with  the  instruments  ordained  by  David,  king  of  Israel. 
This  continued  till  the  burnt-offering  was  finished,  when 
the  king  and  all  present  with  liim  bowed  themselves  and 
worshipped.  And  Ilezekiali  rejoiced  that  God  had  pre- 
pared the  people;  for  the  thing  was  done  suddenly." 
After  that,  proclamation  was  made,  and  messengers  sent  to 
all  the  children  of  Israel,  wherever  they  could  be  found, 
to  come  up  to  Jerusnlem  to  keep  the  great  feast  of  the 
Passover.  The  neglect  into  which  the  laws  of  Moses  had 
fallen,  is  implied  by  the  statement,  "  for  they  had  not  done 
it  of  a  long  time,  in  such  sort  as  it  was  v/ritten."  The 
people  flocked  to  Jerusalem  in  great  numbers,  and  "the 
king  gave  the  congregation  a  thousand  bullocks,  and 
seven  thousand  sheep ;  and  the  princes  gave  one  thousand 
bullocks,  and  ten  thousand  sheep ;  and  a  great  number 
of  priests  sanctified  themselves.  So  there  was  great  joy, 
for  since  the  time  of  Solomon  there  was  not  the  like  in 
Jerusalem." 

Manasseh,  son  of  Ilezekiah,  reversed  all  his  father  had 
done.  "He  built  up  again  the  high  places,  which  had 
been  broken  down,  lie  reared  altars  to  Baal,  and  made 
groves,  and  worshipped  the  host  of  heaven.  He  observed 
times,  and  used  enchantments,  and  dealt  with  wizards,  and 
set  a  carved  image  in   the  House  of  God."     Afterward, 


JEWS.  447 

when  he  was  in  severe  aftliction,  by  reason  of  the  Assyrian 
armies,  he  took  the  idol  out  of  the  temple,  pulled  down 
the  altars  he  had  built  to  foreign  gods,  and  offered  sacrifice 
and  prayer  to  the  God  of  Israel.  But  after  his  death,  his 
son  Amon  set  up  the  carved  images  again,  and  sacrificed 
to  them. 

Josiah,  son  of  Amon,  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  eight 
years  of  age,  and  it  is  said  he  even  then  began  "to  seek 
after  the  God  of  David."  In  the  eighteenth  year  of  his 
reign,  he  sent  orders  to  the  High  Priest  to  count  over  the 
sums  of  money  which  had  from  time  to  time  been  dedicated 
to  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  and  apply  the  sum  to  necessary 
repairs.  His  messenger  returned  and  announced  that  the 
High  Priest  had  obeyed  the  royal  mandate,  and  had  like- 
wise sent  by  him  the  Book  of  the  Law,  which  he  said 
had  been  found  in  the  temple.  It  is  a  very  singular  fact, 
and  one  for  which  commentators  are  puzzled  to  account, 
that  the  pious  young  king  seemed  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
existence  of  such  a  book.  When  it  was  read  to  him,  and 
he  learned  that  the  worship  of  images  was  declared  to  be  a 
great  sin,  which  Jehovah  was  sure  to  punish  with  fierce 
anger,  he  rent  his  clothes  with  grief  and  terror.  Ilulda,  a 
famous  prophetess,  then  dwelt  in  the  college  at  Jerusalem, 
and  priests  were  sent  to  her,  to  inquire  concerning  the 
words  of  the  book.  She  returned  answer  to  the  king  that 
the  Lord  would  surely  punish  the  people  for  burning  in- ' 
cense  to  other  gods;  his  wrath  was  kindled  against  them, 
and  would  not  be  quenched.  But  she  promised  that  he 
should  not  witness  the  evil,  because  he  had  humbled  him- 
self before  the  Lord,  and  rent  his  garments,  when  he  heard 
the  denunciations  of  the  Law.  Yet  if  the  chief  magistrate 
of  the  nation  was  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  such  laws 
against  idolatry,  the  people  surely  were  not  likely  to  be 
better  instructed  than  their  monarch.  Josiah  forthwith 
commenced  the  work  of  atonement  with  great  zeal.  The 
image  of  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  was  brought  out  from 
Jehovah's  temple,  burned,  stamped  to  powder,  and  strewn 
on  the  o;raves  of  those  who  had  sacrificed  ^o  her.     The 


448  PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 

horses  and  cliariot  of  the  Sun,  which  had  been  pLaced  ovef 
the  entrance  of  the  temple,  were  taken  down  and  destroyed. 
The  groves  were  cut  down,  and  human  bones  burned  on 
the  high  places,  that  they  might  be  so  effectually  polluted, 
no  one  would  dare  to  approach  them.  From  every  corner 
of  his  kingdom,  he  hunted  out  all  the  priests  "  who  burned 
incense  to  Baal,  to  the  Sun  and  the  Moon,  and  the  planets, 
and  all  the  host  of  heaven  ;"  and  he  slew  them,  and  burned 
their  bones  on  their  own  altars.  He  even  carried  his  zeal 
so  far  as  to  send  messengers  into  Samaria,  to  demolish  the 
altars  Jeroboam  had  erected.  After  this  thorough  purga- 
tion  of  the  land,  he  commanded  all  the  people  to  keep  the 
Passover.  The  record  states :  "  Surely  there  was  not 
holden  such  a  Passover  from  the  days  of  the  Judges  that 
judged  Israel,  nor  of  the  kings  of  Judah."  "Notwith- 
standing, the  Lord  turned  not  from  the  fierceness  of  his 
great  wrath.  And  the  Lord  said,  I  will  remove  Judah  out 
of  my  sight,  as  I  have  removed  Israel." 

When  the  son  of  Josiah  began  to  reign,  "  he  did  that 
which  was  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord."  Pharaoh  carried 
him  captive  to  Egypt,  placed  his  brother  Jehoiakim  on  the 
throne,  and  compelled  the  kingdom  of  Judah  to  pay 
tribute.  Then  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  came 
up  against  Jerusalem,  carried  the  royal  family  into  captiv- 
ity, robbed  the  Lord's  House  of  many  treasures,  compelled 
the  people  to  pay  tribute  to  him,  and  left  Zedekiah,  a  third 
son  of  Josiah,  to  rule  over  them.  Josephus  states  that 
king  Jehoiakim  went  out  of  Jerusalem  during  the  siege, 
and  voluntarily  resigned  himself  and  all  his  family  into  the 
hands  of  the  Babylonians,  on  condition  that  they  would 
not  burn  the  temple;  "on  which  account,  the  Jews  have 
celebrated  him  in  all  tlieir  sacred  memorials,  and  his  name 
has  become  immortal."  But  this  is  one  of  many  instances 
in  which  Josephus  states  what  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
Hebrew  Sacred  Books. 

It  is  recorded  of  king  Zedekiah,  that  he  and  the  chief 
priests,  and  the  people,  all  transgressed  very  much  concern- 
ing the  worship  of  other  gods,  "  and  polluted  the  house  of 


JEWS.  449 

tlio  Lord,  which  he  had  hallowed  in  Jerusalem,  and  des- 
pised the  words  of  his  prophets,"  After  a  reign  of  eleven 
years,  he  ventured  to  rebel  against  the  king  of  Babylon, 
who  sent  an  army  upon  him,  tliat  slauglitered  men  and 
maidens,  old  and  young,  without  mercy.  The  walls  of 
Jerusalem  were  utterly  demolished,  the  temple  and  palaces 
burned  to  the  ground,  and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants,  who 
escaped  the  sword,  were  carried  captive  into  Babylon  ; 
among  these  was  king  Zedekiah,  who  had  his  eyes  put  out. 
This  memorable  captivity  happened  four  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  years  after  David,  and  five  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
years  before  Christ. 

In  the  course  of  numerous  wars,  civil  and  foreign,  the 
temple  of  Solomon  was  repeatedly  robbed  of  its  treasures; 
but  they  were  again  renewed  by  offerings  from  devotees, 
according  to  their  wealth  and  piety.  Warlike  weapons 
were  thus  dedicated  after  a  victory,  the  same  as  in  Grecian 
and  Phoenician  temples;  for  it  is  recorded  that  Jehoiada, 
the  High  Priest,  armed  his  followers  "  with  spears  and 
shields,  that  were  in  the  temple  of  the  Lord."  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  robbed  the  temple  only  tliiily-five  years 
after  it  was  built.  Asa.  king  of  Judah,  took  gold  and 
silver  from  it,  to  pay  the  Syrians  for  helping  him  against 
the  rival  kingdom  of  Israel.  Joash,  king  of  Judah,  took 
valuable  offerings  from  the  temple  and  bribed  the  king  of 
Syria  not  to  attack  Jerusalem.  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel, 
attacked  Judah,  and  carried  off  all  the  gold,  and  silver,  and 
precious  vessels,  he  could  find  in  the  temple.  Ahaz,  king 
of  Judah,  took  silver,  gold,  and  brass,  from  the  House  of 
the  Lord,  to  procure  help  from  Assyria,  to  fight  against  the 
Sja'ians.  Ilezckiah,  his  successor,  being  unable  to  raise 
sufficient  money  to  pay  the  required  tribute  to  the  king  of 
Assyria,  was  obliged  to  strip  from  the  doors  and  pillars  of 
the  temple,  the  plates  of  gold,  with  which  he  himself  had 
overlaid  them.  And  finally,  Nebuchadnezzar  despoiled  it 
utterly. 

A  few  of  the  poorer  class  of  Hebrews,  "  vine-dressers  and 
husbandmen,"  were  left  to  till  the  soil  of  their  conquered 
Vol.  I.— 38* 


450 


PROGRESS   OF   RELIGIOUS   IDEAS. 


country,  and  a  mild,  just  man,  named  Gedaliali,  was  ap- 
pointed to  rule  over  them.  Jeremiah  the  })r(^phet  was  in 
favour  with  Nebuehadnezzar,  because  he  had  always  ad- 
vised submission  to  him,  in  opposition  to  a  strong  party  of 
his  own  countr3^mcn,  who  favoured  an  alliance  with  Egypt 
against  Babylon,  lie  was  offered  his  choice  either  to  go  to 
Babylon,  or  remain  in  his  native  land.  lie  chose  to  take 
up  his  abode  at  a  city  called  Mispah,  and  Gedaliah  the 
governor  received  orders  to  protect  him,  and  supply  him 
whatsoever  he  needed.  Wlien  the  Babylonian  army  had 
gone,  many  fugitive  Israelites,  who  had  hidden  in  moun- 
tains and  caves,  came  to  Gedaliah  at  Mispah.  He  told 
them  that  whoever  would  cultivate  the  land,  and  pay  trib- 
ute to  Babylon,  should  be  protected,  and  have  assistance  in 
rebuilding  their  houses  and  sowing  their  crops.  The  jus- 
tice and  humanity  of  the  governor  rendered  him  generally 
popular ;  but  a  near  relative  of  the  exiled  king  being  in- 
vited with  others  to  a  feast,  treacherously  attacked  Gedaliah 
and  his  Babjdonian  guards,  and  slew  them.  The  infant 
colony,  alarmed  lest  this  murder  should  be  revenged  upon 
them,  fled  into  Egypt,  Jeremiah  prophesied  against  this 
proceeding,  but  the  people  distrusted  his  advice,  and  he 
followed  them^into  exile.  Thus  were  the  last  of  the  Israel- 
ites banished  from  the  land  of  Canaan. 


IN'D    or    VOL.    I. 


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